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PRINCIPAL  JAMBS   BEART   SIMONDS, 

PEOFESSOE  OF   CATTLE   PATHOLOGY   AT   THE   EOYAL  VETEEINAEY 

COLLEGE,   HONORAEY   MEMBEE   OF   THE   AGEICULTUEAL 

SOCIETY   OF   ENGLAND,    ETC. 

WHO    FOR 

SO    MANY    YEARS    PASSED    HAS    ENCOURAGED   THE    STUDY    OF 

CATTLE   PATHOLOaT, 

AT   ONCE   BY   PRECEPT   AND   EXAMPLE, 

AND    HAS    THEREBY    MATERIALLY   ASSISTED   IN    GIVING 

TO   BOVINE   PATHOLOGY   IN    GREAT   BRITAIN   SUCH 

SCIENTIFIC   TENDENCIES   AS    IT   MANIFESTS 

IN   THE   PRESENT   DAY, 

THIS   WORK   IS 

DEDICATED    BY   HIS   FORMER   PUPIL, 

THE  AUTHOR. 


188  1. 


> 


PREFACE 


Bovine  pathology  has  not  been  hitherto  adequately  re- 
presented in  British  Veterinary  Literature^  but  the  time 
has  now  come  when  it  ought  to  take  up  its  proper  position 
as  a  distinct  section  of  veterinary  science.  Under  these 
circumstances  it  is  somewhat  surprising  that  none  of  our 
leading  veterinary  surgeons  have  produced  a  scientific 
work  of  a  comprehensive  nature  on  diseases  of  cattle. 
It  seems  that  some^  owing  to  their  professional  engage- 
ments, have  had  little  time  left  for  literature,  while  others 
have  been  deterred  by  supposing  that  there  must  already 
be  many  preparing  to  fulfil  so  urgent  a  task.  An  oppor- 
tunity of  preparing  a  work  on  this  subject  having  pre- 
sented itself,  I  have  not  hesitated  to  avail  myself  of  it ; 
and  in  doing  so  I  have  not  advanced  to  my  work  heedless 
of  the  amount  of  labour  involved  in  it,  or  of  the  uncer- 
tainty of  the  data  on  which  it  would  have  to  be  based. 
My  ideal  of  a  work  on  special  pathology  necessitated,  in 
the  first  place,  the  somewhat  dogmatic  summary  of  the 
general  study  of  disease  comprised  in  the  Introduction, 
Section  1.  With  the  data  thus  afforded  I  was  in  a  better 
position  to  specially  consider  diseases  of  the  ox.  No 
trouble  has  been  spared  in  assigning  to  each,  part  of  the 
work  its  proper  position,  with  a  view  to  practical  conveni- 
ence and  facility  in  study.  The  table  of  contents  is,  to  a 
certain  extent,  an  expression  of  the  careful  arrangement 
which.  I  have  adopted.  The  intimate  matter  requires  some 
comment ;  my  aim  has  been  to  tersely  indicate  the  bear- 
ings of  the  subjects  dealt  with,  to  point  out  that  which 
has  been  based  on  science  and  confirmed  by  experience 
in  contrast  with  crude  theory  and  superstitious  empi- 
ricism.    In  following  out  this  plan  I  have  been  compelled 


VI  PREFACE. 

to  omit  the  arguments  wliicli  have  been  advanced  in 
support  of  many  theories.  It  may  be  fancied  that  in 
these  cases  I  am  dogmatic,  but  a  full  statement  of  each 
controversy  would  have  trespassed  too  much  on  my  space 
and  perchance  on  the  patience  of  my  readers,  to  many 
of  whom  the  work  will,  even  in  its  present  form,  seem 
quite  large  enough.  I  the  less  regret  that  I  have 
not  been  in  a  position  to  exhaustively  treat  my  subject, 
since  simultaneously  with  the  announcement  of  this  manual 
appears  that  of  a  larger  and  more  pretentious  work  on  the 
same  subject,  by  an  author  whose  ability  has  been  already 
proved  by  an  excellent  volume  on  'Canine  Pathology,^ 
Professor  J.  W.  Hill,  F.R.O.Y.S.  My  treatise  on  'Bovine 
Pathology '  is  specially  prepared  for  the  veterinary  practi- 
tioner and  student.  I  desire  that  for  the  former  it  may 
be  a  useful  means  of  recalling  facts,  which  in  the  rush  of 
daily  business  are  apt  to  slip  the  memory,  and  may  also 
afford  a  ready  reference  to  past  periodical  literature, 
through  which  he  would  neither  have  time  nor  inclination 
to  wade.  At  the  expense  of  severe  literary  research  I 
have  summarised  and  arranged  the  facts  which  have  been 
communicated  to  the  profession  through  the  medium 
of  our  journals.  But  while  I  have  thus  endeavoured 
to  produce  an  exact  statement  of  the  present  condition 
of  cattle  practice,  I  have  not  aimed  at  a  record  of  pro- 
found investigation.  Neither  the  state  of  the  profession 
nor  of  science  demands  this,  so  I  have  been  content  to 
think  at  every  point  ''how  does  this  concern  the  prac- 
titioner ?''  The  requirements  of  the  student  are  similar, 
also  his  knowledge  must  be  comprehensive  and  exact  for 
the  emergencies  of  examinations.  Thus,  I  have  specially 
aimed  at  method,  the  application  of  general  principles, 
and  precise  statement  of  facts  and  conclusions.  Also  I 
have  inserted  accounts  of  methods  of  administration  and 
other  details  which  might  to  the  practitioner  seem  trivial. 
I  have  endeavoured  to  as  much  as  possible  indicate  the 
relations  of  diseases  of  the  ox  to  those  of  other  animals, 
and  have,  wherever  necessary,  alluded  to  liability  of  com- 
munication of  disorders  to  man,  as  by  contagion,  meat, 


PREFACE.  Vll 

milk,  &c.  The  time  has  not  yet  arrived  when  in  considera- 
tion of  special  pathology  we  can  afford  to  omit  a  hasty  sum- 
mary o£  the  leading  points  of  the  anatomy  and  physiology 
of  the  object  of  our  investigations.  My  method  has  been 
chosen  in  the  hope  that  it  will  refresh  but  not  burden  the 
memory  of  the  reader.  Having  thus,  to  the  best  of  my 
ability,  prepared  this  work  for  the  veterinary  profession, 
it  will  be  observed  that  I  have  made  free  use  of  technical 
terms  (all  of  which,  I  believe,  are  explained  in  the  intro- 
duction), and  have  not  encouraged  empiricism  by  the 
insertion  of  numerous  prescriptions;  I  have  indicated  the 
line  of  treatment,  but  the  exact  means  to  be  used  must 
be  adapted  to  the  emergencies  of  each  case.  The  few 
formulae  given  are  such  as  from  their  general  usefulness 
or  repute  ought  to  be  remembered  by  the  reader.  It  will 
be  constantly  found  in  practice  that  the  difficulties  arising 
from  complications  of  disease  or  from  surroundings 
necessitate  special  modifications  of  the  methods  here 
suggested.  Much  of  the  success  of  a  practitioner  depends 
on  his  skill  in  applying  general  principles  to  special  cases, 
and  acting  accordingly.  I  may  by  some  be  considered 
to  have  too  much  curtailed  the  list  of  symptoms  of  special 
disorders ;  in  this  matter  I  have  in  each  case  acted 
advisedly,  wishing  to  economise  the  labours  of  the 
reader.  Thus,  '^  general  signs  of  febrile  disorder  " 
frequently  does  duty  for  the  somewhat  prolonged  list  of 
these  in  detail,  and  so  on  in  similar  cases. 

There  being  much  difference  of  opinion  among  our 
leading  authorities  on  cattle  pathology,  it  has  seemed 
to  me  best  to  express  my  own  opinions,  while  stating 
and  acknowledging  those  of  others.  Thus,  I  am 
fully  prepared  to  find  that  many  of  my  views  do  not 
meet  with  general  acceptance.  I  await  the  verdict  of 
the  professional  public,  however,  since  I  have  proceeded 
throughout  on  scientific  methods,  and  have  supplemented 
such  practical  experience  as  was  at  my  disposal  by 
most  careful  literary  research.  I  have  endeavoured  to 
express  my  acknowledgment  of  the  assistance  which  I 
have  derived  from  the  few  comprehensive  works  on  bovine 


Vlll  PREFACE. 

pathology,  and  the  numerous  works  on  veterinary  surgery 
and  medicine  which  allude  to  diseases  of  cattle,  as 
well  as  from  some  very  excellent  writings  on  special 
sections  of  my  subject.  Accordingly  a  bibliographical 
list  of  these  has  been  inserted,  which  will,  I  hope, 
prove  a  useful  guide  to  any  reader  who  may  wish  to 
work  up  a  special  subject.  Lastly,  I  have  to  acknow- 
ledge the  kind  courtesy  by  which  the  publishers  and 
authors  of  the  following  works  have  afforded  to  Messrs. 
Longmans  &  Co.  the  numerous  engravings,  which  have 
been  inserted  in  the  hope  of  rendering  the  work  of  greater 
value  : — 

Armatage,  '  Clater's  Cattle  Doctor '  (Messrs.  F.  Warne 
&  Co). 

Harley  ^  Brown,  '  Practical  Histology  ^  (Longmans  & 
Co.). 

Fleming  J  '  Veterinary  Obstetrics  '  (Balliere,  Tindall  & 
Cox). 

Colin,  '  Traite  de  Physiologie  Comparee '  (Balliere  & 
Co.). 

Oohhold,  '  Internal  Parasites  of  our  Domesticated 
Animals'  (The  Field  Office). 

Dobson,  ^  On  the  Diseases  of  the  Ox  '  (Messrs.  Long- 
mans &  Co.). 

Ericlisen,  '  Surgery  '  (Messrs.  Longmans  &  Co.). 

Cut  4  has  been  copied  by  permission  from  Ganfs 
'  Science  and  Practice  of  Surgery.' 

Messrs.  Arnold  and  Son,  the  well-known  veterinary 
instrument  makers,  of  West  Smithfield,  have  supplied  me 
with  some  cuts  of  instruments,  for  which  I  hereby  convey 
my  thanks. 

Thus  I  submit  my  manual  to  the  veterinary  profession, 
and  in  appearing  for  the  second  time  as  an  author,  I 
venture  to  hope  for  such  favour  and  consideration  as 
my  first  effort  has  received. 

JOHN  HENRY  STEEL. 

NOVEMBEB,  1880. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I.— INTRODUCTION. 

Section  1.  General  Consideration  of  Disease. — Etiology,  2;  Diagnosis,  3; 
Symptoms  and  signs,  4 ;  History,  5  ;  Pulse,  6 ;  Respirations,  8  j  Asphyxia, 
9;  Cough,  10 ;  Internal  temperature,  10;  Other  symptoms  and  the 
means  of  observing  them — Prognosis,  14;  Death,  15;  Morbid  anatomy 
or  intimate  pathology,  17 ;  Degenerations,  18 ;  Infiltrations,  20 ;  Inflam- 
mation, 23  ;  Suppuration,  26 ;  Caries  and  ulceration,  29 ;  Gangrene,  32  ; 
Necrosis,  33 ;  Varieties  of  inflammation,  34 ;  Congestion,  35 ;  Haemor- 
rhage, 36 ;  Solutions  of  continuity,  37 ;  Post-mortem  examination,  38 ; 
Varieties  of  disease,  40:  Treatment,  41 ;  Operations,  43;  Nursing  and 
prevention,  46;  Salutary  inflammation,  47;  Value  of  rest,  48;  Anti- 
phlogistics,  49 ;  Counter-irritants,  50  ;  Treatment  of  congestion* 
haemorrhage,  and  dropsy,  53. 

Section  2.  The  Ox  in  his  relations  to  the  General  Consideration  of  Disease. 
— Summary  of  general  peculiarities  of  conformation  and  internal  struc- 
ture, 54 ;  The  influence  of  domestication  on  the  constitution  of  the  ox, 
57;  Other  predisposing  causes,  breeding  "in-and-in,"  58;  Diet,  59; 
Pregnancy,  59 ;  Influence  of  surrounding  air  and  climate,  60 ;  Age,  sex, 
and  conformation,  61;  Exciting  causes,  61;  Symptoms,  general,  62; 
Pulse,  62;  Temperature,  64;  Respirations,  64;  Cough,  64;  Other  sym- 
ptoms, objective,  and  subjective,  65 ;  Prognosis,  68 ;  Treatment,  69  ; 
Methods  of  restraint,  70;  Chloroform  and  chloroforming,  71;  Nursing 
and  prevention,  72. 

Section  3.  Bovine  Therapeutics  and  Materia  Medica. — Methods  of  admin- 
istration of  agents  to  the  ox,  72 ;  drenches,  73 ;  balls,  74 ;  enemas,  74  ; 
inhalations,  75 ;  subcutaneous  injection,  76;  Doses,  77;  Materia  medica 
tables,  78  to  82 ;  Agents  which  are  administered  internally  and  those 
which  are  applied  externally,  83  and  84 ;  Application  of  boiling  water 
and  blistering,  85;  Fomentations  and  poultices,  85  j  Disinfection,  86; 
Bloodletting,  86 ;  The  use  of  setons,  &c.,  88. 


CHAPTER  II.— DISEASES  OF  THE  BLOOD. 

Section  1.  Non-specific  Scemal  Affections. — Hasty  summary  of  the  anatomy 
and  physiology  of  the  blood  in  general,  that  of  the  ox  in  particular,  89. 
Nutritive  Disorders  :  Hypertrophy  (plethora),  91 ;  Atrophy  (anaemia),  92 


X  CONTENTS. 

Cachexia  aquosa  vei'minosa  (liver-fluke  disease),  93  ;  Perverted  nu- 
trition (pyrexia  or  fever),  95 ;  Necrsemia,  98.  Variations  in  Constitu- 
Hon :  Increase  or  decrease  of  normal  constituents  (leucsemia  or  leuco- 
cytha3mia),  99 ;  Retention  of  matter  which  should  be  excreted,  carbonic 
anhydride  poisoning,  100;  Icterus,  jaundice,  101;  Urffimia,  103;  Rheu- 
matism, 104;  Haemoalbuminuria,  muir  ill,  red-water  or  black-water, 
106 ;  Scarlatina,  110 ;  Purpura  ha3morrhagica  (doubtfully  urticaria 
tuberosa),  110;  Introduction  into  the  blood  of  matters  foreign  to  it — 
ordinary  toxic  agents,  specific  toxic  agents. 

Section  2.  Specific  Scemal  Affections, — On  the  nature  of  these  disorders  in 
general— inoculation,  infection,  and  contagion,  113;  Cancer,  119; 
Scrofula  or  tuberculosis,  121 ;  Phthisis  pulmonalis,  121 ;  Tabes  mesen- 
terica,  123;  Tubercular  meningitis,  124;  Scrofulous  arthritis,  124;  Scro- 
fulous tumours,  "  wens"  and  *'  clyers,"  124  ;  Scrofulous  inflammation  of 
the  supra-phtiryngeal  lymphatic  glands,  125 ;  The  essential  nature  of 
tubercle,  125 ;  The  changes  which  the  miliary  tubercle  undergoes,  127 ;  Re- 
lations of  tuberculosis  of  cattle  to  that  of  man,  129 ;  Diagnosis  of  tubercu- 
lous and  typhoid  ulcers,  130;  Pleuro-pneumonia  epizootica  v.  contagiosa  v. 
exudativa,  131 ;  Post-mortem  appearances,  intimate  pathology  after  Dr. 
Yeo,  135;  Treatment,  the  question  of  inoculation,  139;  Eczema  epi- 
zootica V.  contagiosa,  141 ;  Its  complications,  143  ;  Its  relations  to  disease 
in  man,  147;  Rinderpest,  cattle  plague,  or  puschima,  147;  Spread  of  the 
contagium,  151 ;  Means  of  eradication,  152;  Its  pathological  equivalent 
in  man  (different  views),  155  ;  Exanthemata,  their  general  characters, 
155;  Vaccinia,  cow-pox,  variola  vaccinia,  156;  Jenner's  conclusions, 
smallpox  in  the  cow,  157;  Considerations  on  lymph  for  vaccination 
use,  157;  Relations  to  variola  ovina,  158;  Varicella  and  vaccinoides, 
158;  Stages  of  vaccinia,  159;  Infectious  aphtha,  160;  Stomatitis  pus- 
tulosa  equi,  160;  Aphthous  disease  of  the  genital  organs  of  cattle,  160; 
Anthracoid  affections,  charbon,  161 ;  Its  relations  with  Bacillus  anthracis, 
161-163;  Post-mortem  appearances  of  these  diseases  in  general,  also 
curative  and  prophylactic  means,  splenic  fever,  splenic  apoplexy,  essen- 
tial charbon,  167 ;  Texas  fever,  splenic  fever  (American),  or  Spanish 
fever,  168 ;  gloss  anthrax,  malignant  sore  throat,  blain  or  "  hawks,"  169 ; 
Charbonous  gangrene  of  the  lungs,  170  ;  Emphysema  infectuosum,  known 
also  as  black  leg,  black  quarter,  &c.,  170 ;  Its  relations  to  true  anthrax 
171 ;  Pyajmia  and  septicajmia,  173 ;  Parturient  septicaimia,  173 ;  septic 
mammitls,  174;  Glanders,  farcy,  and  strangles,  doubtful  cases  in  the 
ox,  175;  Erysipelas,  176;  and  Diphtheria,  176;  Croup,  the  relations  of 
diphtheria  of  man  to  "  garget"  in  cows,  178 ;  general  considerations  of 
non-contagious  specific  disorders,  178;  Malignant  catarrh,  coryza,  or 
"  glanders,"  179 ;  Rabies,  "  hydrophobia,"  180;  Recurrent  fevers,  182; 
Parasites  in  the  blood,  or  which  are  distributed  throughout  the  system 
by  the  blood,  183  ;  Echinococcus  disease,  183. 

Addendum  \.—Poisonsy  185.— Classification,  186 ;  Cumulation,  186;  Causes  of 
poisoning,  187  ;  Examination  of  a  field,  from  grazing  in  which  animals  are 
supposed  to  have  been  poisoned,  187 ;  Treatment  and  post-mortem  ap- 
pearances, 189;  Special  stimulants — strychnia,  190;  and  ergot  of  rye. 


CONTENTS.  XI 

191 ;  Narcotics — opium,  191 ;  Chloroform,  tobacco,  192  ;  Hyoscyamus 
and  belladonna,  193 ;  Sedative  poisons — hj'drocyanic  acid,  aconitura,  193  j 
Conium,  193 ;  Colchicum,  yew,  digitalis,  194 ;  Lead,  labuniura,  195 ; 
Irritant  poisons,  astringent  poisons,  corrosive  poisons,  196;  Corrosive 
sublimate,  197 ;  Eliminative  poisons — arsenic,  antimony,  calomel,  nitre, 
197  ;  Copper-smoke  disease,  197. 
Addendum  2. — Parasites  and  Parasitismus,  198 ;  Animal  parasitic  organisms, 
198;  Tabular  list  of  parasites  infesting  the  ox  and  his  allies,  204; 
Vegetable  parasitic  organisms,  206. 


CHAPTER  III.— DISEASES  OP  THE  CIRCULATORY  SYSTEM. 

Section  1.  Of  the  iZear^.— Summary  of  special  points  of  anatomy  and  phy- 
siology of  this  organ,  207 ;  "  FunctioTjal"  disease — palpitation,  209 ;  Or- 
ganic diseases — inflammation,  carditis,  or  myocarditis,  210 ;  Hypertrophy, 
210;  atrophy  with  fatty  and  cretaceous  degeneration,  also  the  condition 
known  as  "  pouched  heart,^' endocarditis,  211 ;  Pericarditis,  213;  Trau- 
matic and  idiopathic,  216 ;  Hydrops  pericardii,  rupture  of  the  pericar- 
dium, cardiac  polypi  or  haematomata,  217 ;  Tumours  and  parasites  on 
and  in  the  heart,  rupture  of  the  heart,  218 ;  Malformations  and  mis- 
placements (ectopise),  219. 

Section  2.  Of  the  Arterial  System. — Degenerations  (atheromatous  and  tu- 
bercular), aneurism,  220;  Thrombus,  wounds  of  arteries,  221 ;  Irregulari- 
ties, 221. 

Section  3.  Of  the  Capillary  System — Capillary  haemorrhage,  222. 

Section  4.  Of  the  Venous  System. — Phlebitis,  222;  Thrombus,  rupture 
varicosity,  223 ;  Varicocele  and  tumours  of  the  veins,  224. 

Addendttm  1.  Diseases  of  the  Lymphatic  System. — Inflammation,  mistakenly 
called  "farcy,^'  224;  Lymphadenoma  or  lymphoma,  225. 

Addendttm  2.  Diseases  of  the  Vascular  or  Ductless  Olands,  225 ;  Spleen — 
hypertrophy,  atrophy,  inflammation,  parasitic  invasion,  rupture,  225; 
Of  thyroid  and  thymus,  226. 


CHAPTER  IV.— DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  SYSTEM. 

Section  1.  Of  the  Alimentary  Canal. — Irregularities  and  diseases  of  the  lips, 
teeth,  227;  and  palate,  229  ;  Dropping  the  cud,  230  ;  Anatomy  and  phy- 
siology of  the  salivary  glands  of  the  ox,  230;  Ptyalism,  inflammation, 
parotiditis,  231 ;  Non-occurrence  of  salivary  calculi ;  the  tongue,  glossitis, 
233;  Induration,  234;  Cancer  or  tubercle,  234;  Cramp,  235;  Cystic  diseases 
and  injuries,  235  ;  Paralysis,  and  ulcers,  236 ;  Aphtha,  236 ;  Congenital 
malformation  of  the  palate,  237 ;  Pharyngeal  polypus :  the  oesophagus, 
237;  Oesophagitis,  fibrous  degeneration,  dilatation,  stricture,  238 ;  Para- 
sites, 239 ;  Rupture,  239  ;  Warty  growths  or  degeneration  of  the  mucous 
membrane,  240;  Choking,  240;  Passing  the  probang,  243;  (Esophago- 
tomy,  245 ;  Vomition,  true  and  false  (after  Youatt),  246 ;  Anatomy  of 


Xll  CONTENTS. 

the  gastric  apparatus,  248 ;  Rumination,  251  j  Tympany,  "  Hoven  "  or 
"Blown,"  254;  Puncture  of  the  rumen,  258;  Impaction  of  the  rumen,  260; 
Alvitis,  260 ;  Ruminotomy  or  "  paunching,"  261 ;  Rupture  of  the  rumen, 
262 ;  Foreign  bodies  in  the  rumen  and  reticulum,  263 ;  Parasites,  cal- 
culi, hair-balls  or  legagropiles,  263 ;  Hernia  of  the  rumen  and  reticulum, 
Impaction  of  the  omasum,  264;  Omasitis,  266;  Abomasitis,  266; 
Impaction  of  the  abomasum,  also  atrophy  of  the  lamina)  of  the  omasum, 
267  ;  Rupture  of  the  abomasum,  parasites  in  it,  also  rupture  of  the  blood- 
vessels of  the  stomach,  268;  Indigestion,  stricture  of  the  pylorus,  268; 
Gastro-enteritis  of  calves,  vulgarly  known  as  "  white  scour  "  or  "  skit." 
The  intestines,  270;  General  anatomical  and  physiological  considerations, 
colic,  simple,  spasm  of  the  bowels,  273 ;  Colic  flatulent,  274 ;  Impac- 
tion or  distension  with  obstruction  of  the  bowels,  calculi,  intussus- 
ception or  invagination,  274;  Volvulus,  ileus,  or  twist  of  the  bowel,  275; 
Laparotomy,  275;  Hernia,  276 ;  Umbilical,  exomphalos,  277 ;  Ventral,  279; 
Phrenic,  mesenteric,  inguinal  and  scrotal,  280 ;  Pelvic  hernia,  "  gut-tie  " 
or  "  bound,"  281 ;  Prolapsus  ani,  283  ;  Constipation,  284 ;  Use  of  cathar- 
tics in  cattle  practice,  285;  Haemorrhoids  or  piles,  diarrhoea,  286; 
Dysentery,  "  bloody  flux,"  288 ;  Pantas,  moor-ill,  or  wood  evil,  290 ; 
Enteritis,  291 ;  Crupous  form  with  fibrinous  intestinal  casts,  293 ;  Intes- 
tinal apoplexy,  perforation  or  rupture  of  the  intestines ;  of  the  rectum, 
293 ;  Intestinal  parasites  and  tumours,  malformations  of  the  intestines, 
proctatresia  or  impervious  anus,  mechanical  distension  of  the  rectum,  294. 

Section  2.  Of  the  Liver. — Hepatitis,  295  ;  Congestion  of  the  liver,  hepati- 
rhcea,  hemorrhage  from  and  rupture  of  the  liver,  297;  RamoUissement  or 
softening,  298;  Hepatic  hernia,  299. 

Addendum  1. — The  gall  bladder  and  its  diseases,  299. 

Addendum  2. — The  pancreas  and  its  diseases,  300. 

Section  3.  Of  t?te  peritoneum. — Peritonitis,  300;  Ascites  or  dropsy,  301. 


CHAPTER  v.— DISEASES  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  APPARATUS. 

Comparison  of  this  apparatus  of  the  ox  with  that  of  the  horse,  also  anatomical 
and  physiological  details,  303 ;  Auscultation,  304 ;  Nasal  and  laryngeal 
sounds,  305 ;  Cavernous  rale,  sibilus,  rhonchus,  &c.,  305 ;  Examination 
of  the  chest  of  the  ox  by  auscultation,  306 ;  Percussion,  308 ;  Mani- 
pulation, succussion,  and  mensuration,  309 ;  Nasal  chamber,  anatomical 
facts,  309 ;  Catarrh,  310  ;  Epistaxis,  nasal  polypus,  311 ;  Parasites,  nasal 
gleet,  laryngitis,  312 ;  Tracheotomy,  313 ;  Laryngotomy,  314 ;  Pharyn- 
gotomy,  315 ;  Tumours  of  the  larynx  and  fractures  of  the  cartilages, 
815;  The  trachea,  its  anatomy,  315;  Bronchitis,  317;  Chronic  form, 
818;  Asthma,  319;  Parasitical  form,  "husk,"  "hoose,"  "boast,"  phthisis 
pulmonalis  verminalis,  319 ;  Fumigation,  322 ;  Pulmonary  congestion, 
acute,  322 ;  subacute,  323  ;  Pulmonary  apoplexy,  323 ;  Hajmoptysis,  323  ; 
Pneumonitis,  324,  Crupous  and  catarrhal  forms,  325,  Interstitial  form, 
327 ;  Cysts  in  and  wounds  of  the  lungs,  327;  "  Tic,"  328;  The  Pleura, 
pleuritis,   pleurisy,    hydrothorax,    328;    Empyema,    329;    Paracentesis 


CONTENTS.  Xm 

thoracis  v.  thoracenteBis,  330;  Pneumothorax,  pleuro-pneumonia  spora- 
dica,  331 ;  The  diaphragm,  rupture  of,  332. 


CHAPTER  VL— DISEASES   OF  THE  URINE  AND  URINARY 
APPARATUS. 

Anatomical  features  of  urinary  apparatus,  333 ;  Composition  and  charac- 
ters of  the  healthy  urine  of  the  ox,  334. 

Section  1.  Ahnormalities  of  the  Urine. — Diabetes  simplex  v.  insipidus, 
334  j  Non-secretion  of  urine,  335;  Hsematuria,  335  ;  Albuminuria,  336. 

Section  2.  Diseases  of  the  Kidney. — Nephritis,  337;  Abscess,  338;  Renal 
calculus,  338 ;  Parasites,  339  ;  Renal  encephaloid,  339. 

Section  3.  Disorders  of  the  Urinary  Passages. — Calculi  in  and  dilatation  of 
the  ureter,  339 ;  The  bladder,  retention  of  urine  and  ischury ;  passing  the 
catheter,  340;  Incontinence  or  diuresis,  341;  Dysuria,  strangury,  cys- 
titis, 342;  Spasm  of  the  neck  of  the  bladder,  rupture,  inversion  (prolapsus), 
.343 ;  pervious  urachus,  344 ;  Calculus,  and  sabulous  matter  or  "  gravel," 
344 ;  Rupture  of  the  urethra,  lithecstasy,  lithotrity,  345 ;  Lithotomy, 
346 ;  Tumours  in  the  bladder,  346 ;  urethral  calculi,  347  ;  Stricture  of 
urethra,  praeputial  calculus,  347. 


CHAPTER  VIL— DISEASES  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  SPECIAL  SENSE. 

Section  1.  Abnormalities  of  the  Skin. — "  Hidebound,*' "  staring  coat,"  348 ; 
Classification  of  skin  disorders,  348. 

Sub-section  1.  Non-parasitic  Diseases  :  Inf  animation. — Dermatitis,  erythema, 
E.  mamillarum  ("sore  teats"),  349;  Eczema,  psoriasis,  herpes,  350; 
Impetigo  (pustular  dermatitis),  urticaria  (nettle-rash  or  surfeit),  urt. 
tuberosa,  stinge  (blain  or  singe),  351 ;  Ecthyma  or  acne,  furunculus,  car- 
buncle, pemphigus,  352.  Hypertrophic. — Keratoid,  pityriasis,  neevus,  353 ; 
Dermopilous  cysts,  scleroderma  (elephantiasis),  warts  ("  angle  berries," 
verrucse),  354.  Atrophic. — Alopecia  (depilation  or  baldness),  355.  Func- 
tional — Oildema  *or  anasarca,  emphysema,  355 ;  bloody  sweat,  356 ; 
Pruritus  (neurosis)  ;  effects  of  colour  on  diseases  of  the  skin,  356. 

Sub-section  2.  Parasitic  Disorders  of  the  Skin. — Animal  Parasitic  Diseases 
of  the  Skin  of  Cattle. — Mange,  acariasis,  357 ;  Phthiriasis  (lousiness), 
cestriasis  ("  warbles"),  360  ;  tsetze  fly,  maggots,  and  ticks,  360.  Vegetable 
Parasitic  Diseases  of  the  Skin  of  Cattle. — Tinese,  "ringworm,"  T.  favosa 
(honeycomb  ringworm),  361 ;  T.  tonsurans,  decalvans  v.  depilens,  362. 

Section  2.  Diseases  of  the  Foot. — Anatomical  considerations,  363 ;  Foul  (loo, 
low),  364 ;  Amputation  of  the  foot,  366 ;  Laminitis  (founder),  loss  of  a 
hoof,  sore  feet,  shoeing,  367 ;  Overgrowth  of  horn,  pricks  and  other  pene- 
trating wounds,  monstrous  conditions,  interdigital  fibromata,  ulceration 
of  the  heel,  368. 

Section  3.  Diseases  of  the  Far. — General  considerations,  otitis,  369. 

Section  4.  Diseases  of  the  Fye  and  its  Appendages  : 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

Sub-section  1.  Abnormalities  of  the  Ocular  Appendages. — General  considera- 
tions, 369 ;  Bony  tumours  on  and  fractures  of  the  margin  of  the  orbit, 
fungus  hffimatodes,  lacerations,  emphysema,  oedema,  warty  growths  of 
the  eyelids,  370;  Ptosis,  tumours  on  caruncula  lachrymalis,  371. 

Sub-section  2.  Diseases  of  the  Eyeball. — Anatomical  features,  conjunctivitis 
(simple  ophthalmia),  keratitis  or  corneitis,  371 ;  opacity  of  the  cornea, 
372  ;  Nebula,  albugo,  staphyloma,  372 ;  congenital  hairy  tumours,  373 ; 
"Worm  in  the  eye,  lymphy  deposits  in  aqueous  chambers,  specific  or  perio- 
dic ophthalmia  (retinitis),  373;  Cataract,  amaurosis,  374. 

Section  5.  Diseases  of  the  Organ  of  Taste. — Perversion  of  gustation,  375. 

CHAPTER   VIII.— DISEASES    OF   THE   NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

General  consideration?,  376. 

Section  1.  The  Cerebrospinal  System. — The  brain,  phrenitis  (encephalitis, 
cerebritis,  phrensy),  376 ;  Epilepsy  (megrims  and  staggers),  378 ;  Apo- 
plexy, 379 ;  Dropsy  (hydrocephalus).  Hydr.  congenitalis,  operation  for 
delivery,  380;  Parasites,  382;  Bony  tumours  in  cranium  ("  ossified  brain),*' 
"stomach  staggers,"  coma,  383  ;  Narcosis,  delirium,  383 ;  The  spinal  cord, 
myelitis;  tetanus,  384;  Paralysis  (palsy),  386;  Progressive  lipomatous 
paralysis,  388;  Adynamia  nervosa  generalis,  389;  Chorea  (stringhalt), 
parturient  apoplexy  (milk  fever,  dropping  after  calving),  390 ;  "  Bed- 
sores," 391;  Parturient  fever,  mania  puerperalis,  396;  The  nerves: 
neurotomy,  division  of  the  pneumogastric  nerve,  396. 

Section  2. — The  Sympathetic  System. 

CHAPTER  IX.— DISEASES  OF  THE  SKELETON,  &c. 

General  anatomical  considerations,  397. 

Section  1.  Abnormalities  of  the  Osseous  System. — Ostitis,  398;  Periostitis 
and  inflammation  of  the  outer  lamina  of  a  bone,  399 ;  Periostitis  and 
exostosis,  399 ;  Osteophytes,  fragilitas  ossium,  cachexia  ossifraga  malacia, 
400 ;  Osteoporosis,  rachitis  (rickets),  401  ;  Fractures,  402  ;  Of  the 
horns,  of  the  metatarsal  or  metacarpal  bones,  403 ;  Of  the  os  innomina- 
tum,  ribs,  and  cranium,  *'  greenstick  fracture "  and  separation  of  epi- 
physes, 404. 

Section  2.  Injuries  to  and  Diseases  of  Ligaments  and  Muscles. — Sprain, 
complete  rupture,  sprain  of  the  fetlock -joint,  405;  Of  ligamentum  teres 
of  the  hip,  ruptured  suspensory  ligament,  ruptured  serratus  magnus, 
406 ;  Displacement  of  abductor  f emoris,  parasites  in  muscles,  open  tendi- 
nous sheaths,  407. 

Section  3.  Abnormalities  of  the  Joints. — Arthritis,  407;  Hydrops  articu- 
lorum  (dropsy  of  joints),  408 ;  Synovitis,  relaxation  of  the  pelvic  sym- 
physis ;   Dislocations  or  luxations,  409  ;  Of  the  patella,  410. 


CONTENTS.  XV 

CHAPTER  X.— WOUNDS  AND   OTHER  SURGICAL   CONDITIONS. 

Section  1.  Wounds. — Incised,  punctured,  lacerated,  412 ;  Contused,  poisoned, 
gunshot,  methods  of  repair,  413;  Treatment,  414;  Sutures,  416;  Anti- 
septic surgery  or  "  Listerism,"  417  ;  Results  of  wounds,  418. 

Section  2.  Tumours. 

Subsection  1.  Malignant. — Cancers,  carcinomata,  scirrhus,  419 ;  colloid, 
medullary  sarcoma  (encephaloid),  420 ;  Epithelioma,  melanosis  ("  black 
cancer  "),  treatment,  421 ;  Sarcomata,  422  ;  Osteosarcoma  v.  spina  ventosa 
V.  fibro-plastic  degeneration  of  bone,  423. 

Sub-section  2.  Non-malignant,  Innocent,  Simple. — Solid,  epidermic,  or  epi- 
thelial, fibromata,  lipomata,  enchondromata,  423  ;  Exostosis  and  osseous 
tumours,  calcareous,  lymphomata,  cystic,  haematomata,  serous  abscesses, 
bursal  enlargements,  hydatids,  dermopilous  cysts,  424  ;  Treatment  and 
surgical  removal,  426. 

CHAPTER  XI.— THE  GENERATIVE  ORGANS. 

Section  1.  Diseases  of  the  Male  Organs  of  Generation. — Anatomical  con- 
siderations, castration,  428 ;  The  various  methods  of  procedure,  orchitis, 
sarcocele,  432 ;  varicocele,  sterility,  hydrocele,  injuries  and  cancer  of 
the  penis,  phymosis,  433 ;  Urethral  calculus,  434 ;  Gonorrhoea,  "  bull- 
burnt,"  435 ;  Urethritis,  436. 

Section  2.  Diseases  of  the  Female  Generative  Organs. — Anatomical  con- 
siderations, 436  ;  Dropsy  and  atrophy  of  the  ovaries,  437 ;  Ovariotomy, 
"spaying,"  438;  Menstruation,  oestrum,  or  "heat,"  439;  Profuseness, 
suspension  or  retention  of  cestral  products,  ameuorrhoea,  440 ;  Sterility, 
440 ;  "  Free  martins,"  441 ;  Utero-gestation,  false  labour-pains,  signs  of 
pregnancy,  441 ;  Abortion,  **  slinking,"  442 ;  Premature  birth,  prolonged 
utero-gestation,  excess  in  number  of  the  progeny,  443  ;  Superfoetation, 
extra-uterine  conception,  Csesarean  operation,  444 ;  Parturition, 
*' cleansing,"  or  "after-birth,"  retention  of  the  foetal  membranes,  445 ; 
After-pains,  placenta  prsevia,  haemorrhage  per  vulvam,  446;  "Blood 
flux,"  presentation,  normal ;  mechanical  assistance  sometimes  required, 
447 ;  False  or  abnormal,  448-455 ;  Diseases  and  irregularities  of  the  calf — 
hydrocephalus,  ascites,  emphysema,  polysarca,  oedema,  455;  Monstrosi- 
ties, 456 ; "  Lusus  naturae,"  458 ;  Embryotomy,  458 ;  Twins,  460 ;  Diseases 
of  the  foetal  membranes,  dropsy  of  the  amnion,  hydramnios,  460 ;  Hair- 
balls  in  liquor  amnii,  461 ;  Obstructions  of  the  genital  passages,  tumours, 
imperforate  vagina,  stricture  of  os  uteri,  462 ;  Soft  strictures,  vaginal 
hysterotomy,  impervious  os  uteri,  462;  Persistent  hymen,  torsion  of 
the  uterine  neck,  463;  Dilatation  of  os  uteri,  imperfect  post-partum 
contraction  of  the  uterus,  uterine  inertia,  464;  Furor  uterinus, 
hydrops  uteri,  inflammation  of  the  uterus,  endometritis,  465 ;  Ecthy- 
matous  disease  of  the  arms  of  veterinary  obstetrists,  metroperi- 
tonitis or  puerperal  peritonitis,  466 ;  Lacerations  of  the  uterine  walls, 
uterine  fistula,  rupture  of  the  uterus,  466;  Prolapsus  vel  inversio 
uteri,  499;  Amputation  of  the  uterus,  inversion  of  the  vagina,  473; 


XVI  CONTENTS. 

Inversion  of  the  bladder,  hernia  uteri  or  hysterocele,  tumours  in 
the  uterus,  malformations  of  the  uterus,  rupture  of  the  vagina  or  vulva, 
474 ;  Recto-vaginal  fistula,  vesico- vaginal  fistula,  leucorrhoea  ("  the 
whites  "),  vaginitis,  475. 

Addendum  1.  The  Lactiferous  Apparatus.  ^Ahsence  or  imperforated  state 
of  the  teats,  476;  Mammitis,  v.  "  garget,"  downfall  of  the  udder,  477; 
Scirrhous  state  of  the  mammary  gland,  478;  Congestion;  tumours  on  the 
teats,  obstructions  in  the  teats  (as  lacteal  calculi),  inflammation  of  the 
lining  membrane  of  the  duct,  stricture,  480  ;  Relaxation,  lactorrhoea,  481. 

Addendum  2.  Milk  and  its  Diseases. — Agalactia,  481 ;  Hypergalactia,  changes 

in  the  quality,  482. 
Addendum  3.  Diseases  of   very   Young   Animals, — Umbilical   haemorrhage, 

perviousness  of  the  urachus,  gastro- enteritis,  accumulations  of  meconium, 

inflammation  of    the  umbilical  cord  v.   omphalitis,  483 ;   Gangrenous 

stomatitis,  oedema  of  the  umbilicus,  484. 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FIG. 

1.  Exploring  trocar  (Arnold)  .... 

2.  Fatty  degeneration  of  the  heart  (Harley  and  Brown) 

3.  Pus-corpuscles  and  mucus-corpuscles  (Harley  and  Brown) 

4.  Process  of  healing  of  a  wound  by  granulation  (after  Gant) 

5.  Spray  diffuser  for  anaesthetics  or  disinfectants 

6.  The  "  bull  dogs"  applied  (Armatage) 

7.  An  ox  prepared  for  casting  (Armatage) 

8.  The  stomach-pump  in  use  (Armatage) 

*9.  Application  of  steam  to  the  nostrils  (Armatage)    . 

10.  Method  of  covering  the  nostrils  for  steaming  (Armatage) 

11.  Hypodermic  syringe  (Armatage)    . 

12.  Clyster  syringe  (Arnold)    .... 
12a.  Ox  prepared  for  bleeding  (Armatage) 

13.  Bleeding  fleam  (Arnold)     .... 

14.  Seton  needles  (Arnold)        .... 

15.  Red  blood-globules  (Dobson) 

16.  Fascicola  hepatica  (Cobbold) 

17.  Distoma  lanceolatum  (Cobbold) 

18.  Amphistoma  conicum  (Cobbold)     . 

20.  Elements  of  an  encephaloid  tumour  (Harley  and  Brown) 

21.  Tubercle  (Harley  and  Brown) 

22.  Incipient  pleuro-pneumonia  epizootica  (Simonds) 

23.  Advanced  stage  of  pleuro-pneumonia  (Simonds)    . 

24.  Gloss  anthrax,  or  blain,  early  stage  (Armatage)    . 

25.  Malignant  catarrh,  second  stage  (Armatage) 

26.  Taenia  echinococcus  (Cobbold) 

27.  Infusoria  from  alimentary  canal  (Colin)     . 

28.  Cysticercus  tenuicollis  (Cobbold) 

29.  Beef  measles  in  the  heart  of  a  calf  (Cobbold) 

30.  A  beef  measle  (Cobbold)     .... 

31.  Pentastoma  (Cobbold)         .... 

32.  Thoracic  contents,  as  seen  from  the  left  side  (Simonds) 

33.  The  heart  with  right  cavities  opened  (Simonds)   . 

34.  Ectopia  cordis  (Fleming)    .... 

35.  Artery  ligature  knots  (Erichsen)  . 

36.  Tying  an  artery  (Erichsen) 

37.  A  piece  of  a  thymus  of  a  calf  (Harley  and  Brown) 

38.  Incisors  of  the  ox  (Chauveau) 


PAGE 

14 

19 

26 

31 

44 

70 

71 

74 

75 

76 

77 

,   78 

87 

,   87 

88 

94 

94 

94 

94 

119 

126 

,  133 

,  134 

,  169 

,  180 

.  184 

199 

.  235 

.  205 

,  205 

.  205 

,  207 

,  208 

,  219 

222 


XVUl 


LIST   OP   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FIG. 

39.  Teeth  of  the  ox  (Chauveau) 

40.  Salivary  glands  with  their  ducts  (Simonds) 

41.  Passing  the  prohang  (Simonds) 

42.  Armatage's  wooden  gag     . 

43.  Forceps  or  grasping  probang  (Armatage) 

44.  (Esophageal  groove  (Carpenter) 

45.  Rumen  and  reticulum  opened,  seen  from  the  left  (Simonds) 

46.  Ditto,  muscular  coat  (Simonds) 

47.  Omasum  and  ahomasum  (Simonds) 

48.  Gastric  mass,  from  the  left  (Simonds) 

49.  Ditto,  from  the  right  (Simonds)     . 

50.  Rumen  in  state  of  distension  (Simonds) 

51.  Seat  of  puncture  of  rumen  (Simonds) 

52.  Trocar  and  canula 

53.  Stomachs  of  the  calf  (Simonds) 

54.  Position  of  intestines  of  the  ox  (Colin) 

55.  Intestines,  from  the  left  (Simonds) 

56.  Ditto,  from  the  right  (Simonds)     . 

57.  Truss  for  the  umbilical  hernia  (Armatage 

58.  Clamps  for  umbilical  hernia  (Armatage) 

59.  Liver  and  pancreas  of  ox  (Simonds) 

60.  Tracheotomy  tube  (Armatage) 

61.  Animal  wearing  tracheotomy  tube  (Armatage)     . 

62.  Larynx  and  os  hyoides  of  the  ox  (Simonds) 

63.  Bronchi  and  lungs  of  ox  (Simonds) 

64.  Thoracentesis  v.  paracentesis  thoracis  (Armatage) 

65.  Ditto,  primary  incision  (Armatage) 

66.  Kidney  of  the  ox  (Chauveau) 

67.  Passing  the  catheter  in  the  ox  (Armatage) 

68.  Mange  insects  (Dobson)      .... 

69.  Hair  with  trichophyton  spores  (Harley  and  Brown) 

70.  Method  of  applying  dressings  between  hoofs  (Armatage) 

71.  Staphyloma  (Armatage)     .... 

72.  Congenital  hydrocephalus  (Simonds) 

73.  Ccenurus  cerebralis  (Cobbold) 

74.  Ditto,  in  sitH  (Cobbold)      .... 

75.  Natural  position  of  rest,  as  in  adynamia  (Armatage) 

76.  Puerperal  (parturient)  apoplexy  (Fleming) 

77.  The  catheter  ..... 

78.  Skeleton  of  the  ox  (Dobson) 

79.  Dislocation  of  the  patella  (Armatage) 

80.  Means  of  prevention  of  its  recurrence  (Armatage) 

81.  Pin  or  figure-of-eight  suture  (Dobson) 

82.  Interrupted  suture  (Dobson)  ... 

83.  Scirrhous  growth  from  the  mammary  gland  (Harley  and  Brown) 

84.  Suction  trocar  (from  Erichsen's  'Surgery') 

85.  Pneumatic  aspirator 

86.  Miles  ^craseur         .... 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


XIX 


FIG.  PAGE 

87.  Beach's  ditto  .  .  .  .  .  .  .427 

88.  External  generative  organs  of  a  bull  (Chauveau)  .  .  .     429 

89.  Urethral  canal  of  the  ox  (Armatage)         ....    429 

90.  Castrating  clamps  .  .  .  .  .  .  .431 

91.  Female  generative  organs  (Simoncls)  ....     437 

92.  Maternal  and  foetal  cotyledons  of  the  cow  (Fleming)         .  .     439 

93.  Normal  presentation  (Simonds)      .  .  .  .  .448 
94—99.    Abnormal  presentations  (Simonds)     .            .             .       449 — 454 

100.  Congenital  ascites  (Simonds)  .....     455 

101.  Hydrocephalus  congenitalis — calf  (Fleming)         .  .  .     457 

102.  Harelip  (Fleming)  .  .  .  .  .  .     457 

103.  Common  embryotomy  knife  .....     459 

104.  Gowan's  knife        .......    459 

105.  Finger  hook  .  .  .  .  .  .  .459 

106.  Chain  saw  ........     459 

107.  Portion  of  chorion  with  placentulse  (from  Fleming^s  *  Obstetrics')     470 

108.  Cotyledon  of  a  cow's  uterus  (do.)    .....    470 

109.  Go  wing's  truss  (Simonds)  ......     473 

110.  The  loop  of  Delwart's  truss  (Fleming's  •  Obstetrics ')         .  .     473 

111.  Lobules  of  lacteal  gland  (after  Langer)     ....     477 

112.  Means  of  supporting  the  udder  in  mammitis  (Armatage)  .     480 

113.  Injection  of  fluids  into  the  mammary  gland  (Armatage)  .  .     480 

114.  Section  of  a  cow's  teat  (Colin)        .....     482 

115.  Lobule  of  a  mamma  filled  with  milk  (Colin)  .  .  .     482 

116.  Milk  or  teat  syphon  .  .  .  .  .  .483 


Plate  I. — Section  of  a  plenro-pnenmonic  lung — Frontispiece. 
Plate  II. — Foetus  in  utero — To  face  page  437. 


LIST   OF   SURGICAL  OPERATIONS  AND 
DIAGNOSTIC  MEANS. 


PAGE 

1.  Taking  the  pulse — sphygmograph      .            .            .             . 

6 

2.  Taking  the  temperature — thermometer 

.       10 

3.  Ophthalmoscope  and  exploring  needle 

.       14 

4.  Method  of  conducting  a  post-mortem  examination    .     ' 

.       38 

5.  Methods  of  restraint  ...... 

.      70 

6.  Use  of  anaesthetics      .             . 

.      72 

7.  Administering  a  draught        .             .            .             .             . 

.      74 

8.  Administering  an  enema         .             .             .             .             . 

.      75 

9.  Administering  an  inhalation  .             .             .             .             . 

.      75 

10.  Subcutaneous  injection           .             .             .             .             . 

.      76 

11.  Application  of  boiling  water  .             .            .             .            . 

85,  292 

12.  Bleeding          ....... 

.       86 

13.  Setoning         .            .            . 

.       88 

14.  Tests  of  urine  in  jaundice       .            .             .            .             . 

.     102 

15.  Inoculation  for  pleuro-pneumonia 

.     140 

16.  Vaccination     ....... 

.     157 

17.  Operation  for  traumatic  pericarditis  .             .            .            . 

.    215 

18.  Ligature  of  arteries    ..... 

.     221 

19.  Passing  the  probang  .            .             .             . 

.    243 

20.  CEsophagotomy            ..... 

.     245 

21.  Puncture  of  the  rumen           .... 

.     258 

22.  Ruminotomy,  "  paunching  "  .... 

.     261 

23.  Laparotomy  or  gastrotomy     .... 

.     275 

24.  Operation  for  umbilical  hernia 

.     278 

25.  Operation  for  ventral  hernia  .... 

.    279 

26.  Taxis 

.    281 

27.  Operation  for  inguinal  and  scrotal  hernia 

.     281 

28.              „           pelvic  hernia     .            .             . 

.     282 

29.  Operation  for  impervious  anus 

.     294 

30.  Paracentesis  abdominis           .... 

.     302 

31.  Auscultation  ...... 

.304 

32.  Percussion       ...... 

.     306 

33.  Operation  for  pharyngeal  polypus      . 

.     312 

34.  Tracheotomy  ...... 

.     313 

35.  Laryngotomy.             ..... 

.     314 

36.  Pharyngotomy            ..... 

.     315 

LIST  OF  SURGICAL  OPERATIONS  AND  DIAGNOSTIC  MEANS.       XXI 


37.  Fumigations  in  parasitical  bronchitis 

38.  Paracentesis  thoracis  or  thoracentesis 

39.  Testing  for  albumen  in  albuminuria 

40.  Operation  for  renal  calculus 

41.  Passing  the  catheter 

42.  Lithotrity,  lithecstasy,  and  lithotomy 

43.  Operation  for  urethral  calculus 

44.  Amputation  of  the  foot 

45.  Shoeing         .... 

46.  Removal  of  worm  from  the  eye 

47.  Delivery  of  hydrocephalic  calf 

48.  Trephining  for  Ccenurus  cerebralis  . 

49.  Neurotomy 

50.  Periosteotomy 

51.  Setting  a  fractured  bone 

52.  Operation  for  dislocation  of  abductor  femoris 

53.  Reduction  of  a  dislocated  patella 

54.  Means  of  checking  haemorrhage 

55.  Treatment  by  means  of  sutures 

56.  Antiseptic  surgery,  or  "  Listerism  " 

57.  Surgical  removal  of  a  tumour 
58—69.     Castration 

"  Mulling,"  or  orchithlasis,  428 ; 

elastic  band,  430  ;  with  hot  iron 

ligature,  430  j  torsion,  430 ;  "  tearing  out  the  testicles," 

431 J    with  the  ecraseur,  431 ;     with  the  clamps,  431 ; 

covered  operation,  431. 

70.  Ovariotomy,  "  spaying "       . 

71  Signs  of  pregnancy  ...... 

72.  Csesarean  operation  ...... 

73.  Signs  of  parturition  ...... 

74.  Removal  of  the  foetal  membranes    .  .  .  .  . 

75.  Management  of  a  parturition  case  with  normal  presentation 

76.  Ditto,  abnormal        ....... 

77.  Operations  for  hydrocephalus  congenitalis  and  ascites 

78.  Embryotomy  ....... 

79.  Operation  for  stricture  of  os  uteri  .  .  *.  . 

80.  Operations  for  torsio  cervicis  uteri  .  .  .  . 

81.  Restoration  of  uterus  in  prolapsus  .  .  .  . 

82.  Amputation  of  the  uterus  .  .  .  .  . 


"lashing,"  429; 

430  ;  scraping,  430 ; 


PAGE 

.  322 

.  330 

.  336 

.  339 

.  340 

.  345 

.  346 

.  366 

.  367 

.  373 

.  379 

.  382 

.  395 

.  398 

.  402 

.  407 

.  410 

.  414 

.  416 

.  417 

.  426 
428—432 
with 


438 
441 
444 
445 
445 
447 
448 
456 
459 
463 
464 
470 
474 


LIST   OF  TABLES. 


1.  System  of  record  of  cases 

2.  Agents  which  are  administered  internally 

3.  Ditto,  externally 

4.  Classification  of  poisons 

5.  Parasites  (after  Cobbold) 

9.  Classification  of  skin  diseases  . 


PAGE 

6 
79 
83 

186 
204 
348 


=^1  LlBfi4 


QyO»'V  »*'  .^ 


^?^^!nrv> 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


CHAPTER  I.— INTRODUCTION. 
Section  1. 

Disease  is  a  departure  from  a  liealtliy  condition,  and  is 
consequently  modified  in  its  characters  and  effects  in 
animals  of  different  species  by  special  anatomical  and 
physiological  peculiarities.  In  by  far  the  larger  number 
of  cases  functional  disorder  is  present,  dependent  on 
structural  changes,  and  it  seems  that,  with  the  improve- 
ments which  will  be  made  in  our  methods  of  minute 
examination  of  tissues  in  health  and  in  disease,  we  shall 
in  direct  ratio  find  that  diseases  supposed  to  be  purely 
functional  are  due  to  alterations  in  structure.  This  has 
already  been  done  in  many  cases,  and  we  may  take  it  as  a 
law,  sufficiently  proved  for  working  purposes,  that  disease 
is  a  departure  from  healthy  structure  of  constituents  of 
the  body.  These  constituents  of  the  body  are  elements, 
such  as  cells,  fibres,  membranes,  and  granules,  which  are 
combined  together  to  form  tissues,  which  produce  by 
union  in  various  ways  the  organs  which  co-operate  to 
accomplish  the  various  processes  essential  to  life.  In 
the  highest  animals  these  organs  are  collected  into 
systems  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  various  functions 
which  high  complexity  of  vitality  necessitates.  Thus, 
in  pathology,  we  have  to  deal  with_  elements,  tissues, 
organs,  and  systems,  and  all  of  these  are  bound  together 
so  intimately  in  the  animal  mechanism,  that  alteration  of 
any  one  of  them  tends  to  throw  the  body  into  an  abnor- 

i  1 


Z  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

mal  state.  Alteration  of  structure  as  present  in  disease 
is  often  brought  about  by  changes  from  ordinary  states  of 
parts  in  situation,  relations  (either  among  themselves  or 
with  foreign  bodies),  and  form.  Such  changes  may  result 
occasionally  from  inherited  and  other  intrinsic  influences, 
but  are  almost  always  due  to  agency  from  without.  Every 
living  being  is  adapted  to  certain  external  conditions,  and 
is  capable  of  undergoing  modification  in  accordance  with 
any  variations  which  these  conditions  may  show  within 
certain  limits  ,  but  the  complexity  of  organisation  in  such 
an  animal  as  the  ox  requires  gradual  transitions,  or  dis- 
order ensues.  Thus,  we  generally  seek  the  cause  of  any 
attack  of  disease  in  changes  of  surrounding  agencies,  as 
weather,  food  supply,  &c.  This  branch  of  study  is  termed 
Etiology. 

Causes  are  predisposing  or  exciting.  The  greater  the 
amount  of  activity  in  a  part  or  animal  the  greater  the 
liability  to  disease.  Thus  may  be  explained  a  number  of 
facts,  such  as  that  highly  organised  animals  are  most 
often  diseased,  when  we  develop  one  system  specially  for 
economic  purposes  it  most  frequently  of  all  the  body 
systems  is  liable  to  disorder,  and  the  most  active  body 
tissues  are  similarly  susceptible.  But  a  part  may  be  in  such 
a  highly  active  condition  and  yet  able  to  do  its  duties,  until 
some  sudden  change  disturbs  its  relations  with  surrounding 
parts  and  alters  its  structure.  These  states  of  verging  on 
disease  are  termed  Predisposing  Causes.  Thus,  the  milch 
cow  is  predisposed  to  mammitis,  and  the  fattening  ox  to 
diseases  of  the  digestive  apparatus.  By  an  extension  of 
meaning,  predisposition  has  come  to  imply  also  liability  to 
disorder  from  any  external  surrounding  conditions  ;  thus, 
we  hear  of  predisposition  to  choking  in  the  fact  of  animals 
being  fed  on  improperly  prepared  turnips,  and  to  hair 
accumulations  in  the  rumen,  as  a  result  of  the  habit  oxen 
have  of  licking  themselves  and  each  other.  Determination 
of  all  predisposing  causes  present  is  highly  necessary,  for 
counteraction  of  them  is  essential  to  success  in  treat- 
ment. 

By  some  authorities  intrinsic  causes  are  termed  Predis- 


INTEODUCTION.  6 

positions,  in  contrast  witli  simple  predisposing  causes 
which  act  from  without.  Among  these,  hereditary  pre- 
disposition is  of  great  importance.  When  we  consider 
that  the  parent  transmits  to  the  offspring  similarity  of 
external  structure,  with  the  specialities  of  function  result- 
ing therefrom,  we  shall  hardly  deny  that  peculiarities  of 
internal  structure  are  also  transmissible.  So  intimate  is 
the  connection  between  the  various  parts  of  the  body  that 
each  must  be  affected  by  the  others.  Thus,  the  germ-cell 
and  sperm- cell  have  special  family  characters  manifested 
only  in  the  product  of  their  development.  The  parent 
and  offspring  being  alike  in  most  structural  points,  and 
special  structure  giving  special  liability  to  disease,  we  can 
understand  how  it  is  that  hereditary  predisposition  to 
disease  of  special  form  occurs  in  such  disorders  as  tuber- 
culosis and  cancerous  diseases.  The  reverse  of  predis- 
position is  termed  immunity. 

Exciting  Causes  are  the  direct  producers  of  disorder; 
sometimes  they  are  enabled  to  act  deleteriously  in  spite  of 
the  absence  of  predisposition,  but  generally  they  find 
certain  favouring  states,  so,  the  cautery  always  arouses 
diseased  action,  but  a  mild  external  stimulant  may  simply 
arouse  the  activity  of  the  part  to  which  it  is  applied;  the 
latter,  however,  becomes  an  active  promoter  of  mischief 
when  the  part  is  already  in  a  disordered  state.  Removal 
of  the  cause,  of  all  causes,  is  the  grand  principle  in  treat- 
ment of  disease.  Our  inability  to  draw  a  sharp  line  of 
demarcation  between  health  and  disease  is  a  direct  result 
of  deficiency  in  our  acquaintance  with  structure  and 
function.  We  cannot  yet  tell  whether  structure  exists  in 
the  protoplasmic  contents  of  cells ;  and  when  we  see  that 
a  white  blood-corpuscle  is  capable  of  exhibiting  all  the 
properties  of  life,  we  cannot  doubt  that  profound  secrets 
of  nature,  as  carried  on  in  the  laboratory  of  cell  structure, 
remain  yet  to  be  explored. 

Diagnosis  of  Disease  is  determination  of  the  seat  and 
nature  of  a  malady.  An  animal  is  brought  to  us  "  ill,'' 
as  manifested  by  certain  symptoms.  These  may  be 
general   or   special.      All  animals   have    certain  ways   of 


4  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

showing  that  they  are  unwell,  and  we  shall  have  to  notice 
such  among  bovines.  These  depend  upon  special  structural 
or  physiological  peculiarities,  so  that  one  of  our  earliest 
duties  will  be  to  indicate  these  as  distinctive  of  the  ox 
and  his  allies. 

These  general  symptoms  are  often  the  first  which  appear, 
and  then  are  premonixory;  they  do  not  always  persist 
throughout  the  attack,  being  obscured  by  special  symptoms 
in  many  cases.  They  especially  come  under  the  notice  of 
caretakers  of  animals,  and  the  value  of  such  depends 
much  upon  their  ability  to  mark  at  the  earliest  stage 
departure  from  the  usual  habits  of  the  animal. 

Signs,  Diagnostic  or  Special  Symptoms,  serve  either  to 
enable  us  to  determine  the  seat  or  nature  of  a  malady. 
They  may  be  simply  manifested  in  the  diseased  part  or 
parts,  but  we  often  find  that  local  disorder  becomes 
systemic,  as  a  result  of  the  close  relations  existing  between 
all  parts  of  the  body,  especially  in  their  functions. 

Systemic  Symptoms  are  found  in  inflammations  and 
debilitating  diseases,  for  example;  they  prove  useful  in 
determination  of  the  nature  of  the  disease,  but  observation 
of  Local  Symptoms  is  essential  to  complete  diagnosis.  The 
latter  indicate  to  us  what  parts  must  be  especially  affected 
by  treatment,  the  former  show  us  what  the  nature  of  the 
remedial  means  must  be.  Sometimes  the  systemic  sym- 
ptoms are  present,  but  no  local  indications  can  be  observed. 
This  occurs  in  '^  blood  diseases ''  in  which  the  blood,  a  tissue 
with  liquid  intercellular  substance,  being  circulated  in 
every  part  of  the  body,  gives  a  generally  diffused  mani- 
festation of  disease,  which  is  the  condition  known  as 
fever. 

Some  practitioners  err  in  treating  only  symptoms.  In 
each  case  these  must  be  taken  merely  as  indications  of  the 
conditions  of  the  diseased  parts.  Any  clue  they  give  as 
to  the  causes  which  produced,  or  tend  to  continue  the  dis- 
ease must  be  specially  noted;  for,  our  aim  in  each  case 
must  be  to  "  remove  causes  that  effects  may  cease.'^  Such 
is  the  accuracy  of  mechanism  in  the  economy  of  a  living 
being  that   it   returns   to   true  working  when  disturbing 


INTRODUCTION.  5 

agencies  no  longer  act.  In  the  diagnosis  of  disease 
COMPLICATION  is  an  important  element.  As  a  rule,  we  have 
to  do  with  disease  of  more  parts  than  one,  and  have  to 
come  to  a  clear  understanding  in  each  case,  for  the  dis- 
ease which  causes  the  others,  the  peimary  disorder,  must 
be  that  against  which  our  medicinal  efforts  are  directed. 
If  we  succeed  in  removing  it,  secondary  diseases  result- 
ing from  it  will  generally  disappear.  Thus,  dropsy  is  a 
secondary  condition  often  dependent  on  heart  disease. 
Secondary  pathological  conditions  may  be  due  to  co- 
operation in  function,  or  to  continuity  or  contiguity  of 
structure.  The  instance  just  given  illustrates  the  first 
method,  for  the  dropsy  results  from  escape  of  watery  con- 
stituents through  the  walls  of  the  overloaded  vessels  which 
cannot  perfectly  pour  their  contents  into  the  heart.  Ex- 
tension by  continuity  of  structure  is  seen  when  the  pleura 
becomes  involved  by  extension  of  disease  which  originated 
in  the  lungs.  Contiguity  is  less  frequently  a  means  of 
spread ;  sometimes  we  see  a  gangrenous  patch  on  the 
wall  of  a  serous  cavity  opposite  a  gangrenous  portion  of 
a  contained  viscus.  This  means  is  also  exemplified  in  joint 
diseases,  and  wherever  living  cells  lie  together  without  or- 
ganic connection.  Occasionally  we  find  in  a  special  disease 
some  symptoms  by  means  of  which  its  nature  may  be  at 
once  determined;  such  a  symptom  is  termed  Pathognomonic. 
Thus,  the  presence  of  the  anthrax  Bacillus  in  the  blood  is 
pathognomonic  of  charbon,  and  the  changed  condition  of 
the  urine  similarly  enables  us  at  once  to  determine  the 
presence  of  hsBmo-albuminuria. 

The  History  of  every  case  of  disease  should  be  ascer- 
tained with  the  utmost  care,  and  when  possible  a  written 
record  should  be  kept  for  future  reference.  It  should 
comprise  all  ascertained  particulars  of  the  case,  from  its 
commencement  to  its  termination.  It  will  prove  not  only 
a  more  sure  guide  to  diagnosis  and  prognosis  than  the 
memory,  but  will  enable  the  practitioner  to  perform  his 
duty  to  the  profession  in  recording  the  case  if  it  prove 
interesting.  We  can  never  be  assured  of  the  professional 
value  of  a  case   until  it   has  terminated.      Much  of   the 


6  BOVINE  PATHOLOGY, 

value  of  good  cases  is  often  lost  from  paucity  or  inaccu- 
racy of  records  of  the  early  stages.  In  each  case  a 
regular  system  should  be  adopted;  dates  especially  should 
be  insisted  upon,  and  all  records  should  be  made  at  once. 
We  have  found  the  following  a  satisfactory  system  of 
record  : 

Date  of  admission     Date  of 
Case.    Colour.     Sex.    Age.       to  treatment.      discharge.    Disease.    Progress. 


Pulse,  "j  State  of  the  blood,  if  any  has 

Respirations,  >  On  special  chart.  been  removed. 

Internal  temperature,  J  Conditions   of   mucous    mem- 

Excretions,  branes. 

Appetite,  Temperature  of  surface  of  body 

and  condition  of  the  skin. 
Special  features  of  case. 


The  Pulse  is  due  to  periodical  enlargement  of  arteries 
such  as  results  from  their  distension  with  blood  in  con- 
sequence of  the  hearths  beat.  It  is  one  of  the  most  useful 
indications  of  the  state  of  an  animal's  health,  and  can  be 
taken  at  any  accessible  artery  ;  but,  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, we  utilise  for  this  purpose  only  such  vessels  as 
are  but  slightly  separated  from  the  surface  of  the  body, 
and  are  so  placed  in  relation  to  hard  structures  that  they 
can  be  compressed  against  the  hard  adjacent  tissues  by 
the  fingers,  and  thus  their  beats  rendered  perceptible  to 
the  observer.  These  beats  vary  in  number  with  the 
heart's  contractions,  and  are  perceptible  sooner  after  the 
heart's  beat  in  vessels  near  that  organ  than  in  those  more 
remote.  They  depend  upon  the  conditions  of  the  arteries 
as  well  as  of  the  heart,  and  the  vessels  passing  from  the 
heart  are  so  constructed  that  the  pulse  is  less  marked  in 
the  smaller  arteries  than  in  the  larger  ones,  even  rela- 
tively, and  disappears  in  the  smallest  of  these  vessels. 
The  sphygmograph  is  an  instrument  used  to  obtain  a 
written  record  of  the  condition  of  the  pulse ;  it  has  not 
yet  been  applied  to  veterinary  surgery.  The  pulse  assumes 
various  characters  according  to  its  rapidity  of  beat,  frequency 
of  occurrence,  resistance  to  pressure,  regularity,  and  per- 
ceptibility. Thus  we  have  the  quick  and  slow,  frequent  and 
infrequent,  hard  and  soft,  full  and  imperceptible,  large  and 


INTRODUCTION.  7 

small  pulses,  the  characters  of  which  may  be  determined 
from  their  names,  also  that  form  known  as  the  intermittent, 
either  regular  or  irregular.  In  the  latter  case  the  beats 
and  intervals  are  uncertain,  in  the  former  at  regularly 
recurring  intervals  the  pause  is  prolonged.  The  dicro- 
tonous  or  double  pulse  is  found  in  blood  diseases ;  it 
consists  in  a  double  rise  of  the  arterial  wall  for  each  beat 
of  the  heart ;  physiologists  debate  its  nature ;  it  is  a 
symptom  of  importance.  The  thready  pulse  is  extremely 
small,  and  scarcely  perceptible.  The  '^  running  down  ■'■' 
pulse  occurs  just  before  death,  especially  in  cases  of 
haemorrhage,  and  consists  in  rapid  loss  of  force  of  beat, 
with  increasing  frequency,  until  the  pulse  becomes  imper- 
ceptible. It  is  a  very  grave  symptom.  The  'Wenous 
pulse  '^  is  a  sign  of  which  we  shall  make  use  when 
treating  of  heart  diseases.  The  sharp  beat  of  the 
'^  quick  '^  pulse  must  be  distinguished  from  the  increase 
in  number  of  beats  per  minute  characteristic  of  the 
'^  frequent  ^^  pulse.  Sometimes  the  enlargements  of  the 
artery  vary  in  successive  beats,  then  the  pulse  is  termed 
unequal,  while  extreme  irregularity,  and  difficulty  in 
perception  and  appreciation  of  its  characters  constitute 
the  confused  beat.  The  oppressed  beat  is  prolonged  and 
not  very  marked,  while  the  vessels  are  much  distended. 
We  are  not  desirous  of  drawing  attention  here  to  the 
exact  method  by  which  these  conditions  of  the  pulse  are 
produced,  but  will  merely  state  that  variations  in  frequency 
and  rapidity  of  beat  are  connected  directly  with  the  action 
of  the  heart,  and,  therefore,  especially  dependent  on  states 
of  the  nervous  system  and  fever,  inducing  rapidity, 
and  certain  brain  disorders,  reducing  the  beats  below  the 
normal  number  per  minute ;  while  the  quick  pulse  shows 
an  irritable  state  of  the  heart,  slowness  of  beat  often  de- 
pends on  impediment  to  egress  of  the  blood.  Hardness 
and  softness  depend  upon  the  tone  of  the  arteries,  which 
consists  in  slight  persistent  contraction  of  their  white 
muscular  fibres  adapting  them  to  their  contents  ;  while 
largeness  or  smallness  depends  upon  the  amount  of  blood 
in  the  arteries,  resulting  from  the  state  of  supply  from 


8  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

the  heart  and  outfall  into  the  capillaries.  "With  largeness 
of  the  pulse  may  be  associated  hardness,  constituting  the 
''  corded  *'  beat ;  the  '^  wiry  '^  pulse  is  small  and  hard, 
and  a  soft  pulse  may  be  large  or  small.  The  complicated 
vaso-motor  mechanism,  by  means  of  which  these  variations 
in  the  states  of  the  artery  of  the  living  subject,  together 
with  the  intrinsic  and  extrinsic  nervous  mechanisms  of 
the  heart  are  brought  about,  are  explained  in  all  modern 
works  on  physiology.  We  have  given  enough  information 
to  enable  us  to  complete  our  remarks  on  this  point,  by 
observing  what  states  of  our  patients  may  modify  the  pulse. 
The  beats  vary  with  age,  being  generally  frequent  in  very 
young  animals  and  declining  until  old  age ;  somewhat  more 
frequent  in  the  female  than  the  male,  they  are  especially 
increased  by  conditions  of  pregnancy  (varying  with  the 
stages)  and  lactation.  Individual  temperament  may 
afEect  the  number,  but  especially  alters  the  character  of 
the  pulse.  The  nature  of  the  anima?s  work  and  mode  of 
life,  as  also  various  processes  of  digestion  (especially 
rumination)  and  some  minor  influences  also  affect  the 
pulse. 

The  Respiratory  System,  by  means  of  which  much 
impure  matter  is  removed  from  the  blood  and  much 
oxygen  is  added  to  it,  gives  us  indications  of  importance, 
as  serving  for  diagnosis  and  prognosis  of  disease.  Varia- 
tions occur  in  the  manner  of  introduction  of  air  into  the 
lungs,  and  of  its  expulsion  after  utilisation,  also  in  the 
frequency  of  these  processes.  The  extent  of  this  system 
renders  it  liable  to  become  affected  by  contiguity  to  many 
parts.  Also  its  nervous  connections  are  of  considerable 
importance.  Hence,  in  every  case  we  should  examine  the 
number  and  kind  of  breathing  efforts,  and  we  shall  often 
find  it  necessary  to  note  the  presence  and  character  of 
a  cough  or  other  sound  produced  by  respiratory  acts.  It 
has  been  observed  that  under  healthy  conditions  the  pulse 
and  respirations  bear  to  each  other  a  definite  numerical 
relation,  one  to  four,  but  this  is  hardly  exact.  Fevers, 
inflammations,  and  other  diseased  conditions  affecting  the 
system,  cause  increased  frequency  of  breathing. 


INTEODUCTION.  9 

Respirations  consist  of  two  acts^  inspiration  and 
expiration.  The  former  is  brought  about  by  elevation  of 
the  ribsj  and  contraction  of  the  diaphragm — both  acts  of 
muscular  exertion.  The  effect  of  contraction  of  the 
diaphragm  is  to  lessen  its  concavity  towards  the  abdomen, 
hence  it  presses  on  the  abdominal  viscera  and  causes 
bulging  of  the  walls  of  the  belly.  Expiration  under 
ordinary  circumstances  depends  upon  elastic  recoil  of  the 
elevated  walls  of  the  thorax_,  resulting  in  expulsion  of  air 
through  the  trachea  and  larynx.  Respirations  vary  with 
their  depth,  frequency,  quickness,  facility,  and  the  nature 
of  the  movements  by  which  they  are  brought  about.  Thus, 
they  may  be  quick  or  slow,  frequent  or  infrequent,  deep 
or  imperfect,  laboured,  unequal,  irregular,  &c. 

Dyspn(ea  is  a  term  used  to  imply  difficulty  of  breathing 
of  any  kind. 

Apn(EA  is  the  extreme  of  infrequent  respiratory  effort, 
dependent  upon  the  circulation  of  highly  oxygenated 
blood  through  the  medulla  oblongata,  where  the  respira- 
tory centre  resides.  Until  its  natural  stimulus,  venous 
blood,  is  supplied  to  this  centre,  no  respiratory  effort  will 
occur. 

Oethopncea  is  that  condition  in  which  difficulty  of 
respiration  is  marked  except  when  the  animal  is  in  a 
standing  position. 

Asphyxia  (literally  pulselessness)  is  a  complicated  con- 
dition due  to  insufficient  supply  of  air  for  respiratory 
purposes.  It  commences  as  dyspnoea,  convulsions  with 
violent  expiratory  efforts  succeed,  and,  finally,  exhaustion 
sets  in,  leading  to  death.  In  the  later  stages  of  asphyxia 
the  animal  is  stretched  out  in  a  recumbent  position,  with 
dilated  pupils,  loss  of  general  sensibility,  scarcely  per- 
ceptible pulse,  visible  mucous  membranes  dark  purple  in 
colour,  respirations  deep  and  slow.  Finally,  he  gasps 
for  breath,  extends  the  limbs,  shudders,  and  dies.  And 
on  post-mortem  examination  the  lungs,  right  side  of 
the  heart,  medulla  oblongata,  and  various  body  tissues 
are  found  in  a  state  of  venous  engorgement.  Lungs, 
heart,  and  medulla  are  all  concerned  in  the  fatal  result. 


10  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

neither  of  these  organs  being  stimulated  because  o£  the 
deficiency  of  oxygen.  Inhalation  of  such  heavy  gases  as 
prevent  access  of  oxygen  to  the  lungs,  suffocation,  and 
many  other  diseased  conditions  bring  about  death  in  this 
way.  Sometimes  the  expulsion  of  air  from  the  lungs  is 
laboured,  and  accompanied  by  a  harsh  rattling  sound  ;  the 
breathing  is  then  said  to  be  Stertorous.  It  depends 
upon  the  movement  of  velum  pendulum  palati  by  the 
expiratory  current,  and  may  be  observed  in  cases  of 
parturient  apoplexy,  for  instance. 

Cough  is  brought  about  by  a  deep  inspiration,  the 
glottis  is  then  closed  until  the  outward  current  of  air 
suddenly  forces  the  vocal  cords  apart,  when  the  air 
escapes  with  a  sharp  sound,  and  emerges  either  through 
the  nostrils  or  mouth  with  some  force,  carrying  with  it  any 
foreign  body,  such  as  a  mass  of  mucus,  &c.,  which  may 
have  been  about  the  glottal  opening.  Cough  depends  upon 
reflex  nervous  action,  and  may  be  primary  when  the 
irritation  exists  in  the  lungs  or  air  passages,  or  secondary, 
when  due  to  irritation  of  the  stomach,  intestines,  or 
other  parts  having  nervous  communications  with  the 
respiratory  apparatus.  We  speak  of  harsh,  difficult, 
paroxysmal,  suppressed,  and  other  coughs  which  do  not 
require  special  description.  Some  coughs  are  considered 
pathognomonic  signs,  such  as  that  of  pleuro-pneumonia 
zymotica. 

Oxygen  introduced  by  the  process  of  respiration  into  the 
blood  is  the  grand  agent  in  the  production  of  animal  heat.  It 
combines  with  various  matters,  whether  in  the  blood  or  in  the 
other  tissues,  and  produces  with  them  carbonic  anhydride 
and  water  (which  are  passed  off  by  excretory  organs,  espe- 
cially the  lungs)  and  heat,  which  enables  the  several  parts 
of  the  body  to  perform  their  functions.  Observation  has 
proved  that  for  each  species  of  animal  we  may  determine  a 
standard  internal  temperature,  which  proves  useful  in 
the  diagnosis  of  disease,  especially  when  of  an  epizootic 
and  contagious  character;  to  a  slight  degree  indi- 
viduality modifies  the  readings.  Though  thermometry  is 
yet  in  its  infancy  many  valuable  results  have  been  obtained 


INTRODUCTION.  11 

from  it.  The  clinical  thermometer  (self  registering)  is 
the  instrument  used,  and  proves  a  most  valuable  aid  to 
the  veterinary  inspector  of  contagious  disorders.  The 
vagina,  mouth,  and  preferably  the  rectum,  are  the  seat  of 
insertion.  The  instrument  requires  to  be  '^  set  "  to  near 
the  expected  reading,  as  by  warmth  from  the  hand,  to  be 
introduced  a  short  way  and  then  moved  farther  in,  and  to 
be  rested  against  the  walls  of  the  cavity  for  about  three 
minutes.  These  precautions  are  mentioned,  as  neglect  of 
them  may  lead  to  imperfect  observation.  Ordinary 
physiological  influences  as  exercise,  digestion,  &c.,  give 
rise  to  slight  variations  of  internal  temperature,  but  a  rise 
of  2°  or  3°  is  sufficient  to  lead  us  to  suspect  some  febrile 
disturbance,  and  it  has  been  found  that  a  rise  of  the 
internal  temperature  is  the  earliest  perceptible  indication 
of  various  eruptive  fevers.  It  therefore  is  a  valuable 
indication  of  the  advisability  of  separation  when  it  occurs 
in  animals  which  have  run  risk  of  contagion.  A  marked 
fall  in  temperature  below  the  normal  occurs  in  most  cases 
shortly  before  death,  and  a  low  temperature  is  observable 
in  typhoid  fever  and  other  diseases  of  a  low  or  asthenic 
type.  When  this  instrument  is  not  available  we  must 
resort  to  the  usual  methods  of  investigation  of  the  surface 
temperature.  Coldness  or  the  reverse  of  the  extremities, 
of  the  mouth,  of  the  expired  air,  must  be  estimated  by  our 
sense  of  touch,  while  care  is  taken  to  note  any  variations  of 
these  points,  either  at  different  times  or  at  one  and  the  same 
time  among  similar  members.  Any  tendency  to  coldness  or 
unequal  temperature  of  these  parts  must  be  viewed  with 
suspicion,  as  indicating  deficiency  or  perversion  of  the  blood 
supply  whereby  heat  is  diffused  throughout  the  body. 
Excessive  warmth  indicates  febrile  conditions.  A  fall  in 
temperature  of  the  surface  is  generally  a  precursor  of 
death,  so  we  often  read  of  "deathly  coldness  of  the 
extremities.^'  The  conditions  of  the  skin  also  require 
attention,  it  is  the  principal  regulator  of  internal  tempera- 
ture, and  the  effects  of  its  disorder  are  well  seen  in  the 
rise  of  the  mercury  in  fever  cases.  Its  supply  of  blood 
and    its  nervous  organisation  are  very  marked,   so  it  is 


12  BOVINE  PATHOLOGY. 

liable  to  disorder,  and  very  early  indicates  systemic 
disease.  It  varies  under  diseased  conditions  in  its 
moisture  and  smoothness  as  well  as  temperature.  We 
see  it  dry  and  harsh,  with  an  erected  condition  of  its 
hairs,  ^'  staring,^'  as  it  is  termed,  in  most  disorders.  It 
may  be  bedewed  with  moisture,  locally  or  generally,  as  a 
result  of  pain.  While  coldness  with  dampness — "  cold 
sweats  '' — are  a  sign  of  approaching  dissolution.  The 
mucous  membranes  exhibit  variations  in  conditions  visible 
to  the  eye,  and  thus  serve  to  supplement  the  conclusions 
arrived  at  from  the  state  of  the  skin ;  they  become 
reddened  in  fever,  purple  in  certain  morbid  conditions  of 
the  blood,  pale  in  low  fever  and  other  debilitating  con- 
ditions. 

The  various  excreta  should  be  most  carefully  examined 
as  to  their  quality,  quantity,  and  mode  of  expulsion. 
Each  excretion  has  a  definite  normal  composition  as  ex- 
hibited by  certain  physical  and  chemical  characters. 
Odour,  appearance  (including  colour,  form,  and  arrange- 
ment of  components),  consistence,  and  in  some  cases  even 
taste,  exercise  the  special  sense  faculties  of  the  observer. 
Specific  gravity  is  especially  altered  in  the  fluid  matters 
given  off  from  the  body,  such  as  urine  and  milk  ;  it  is 
tested  by  modified  forms  of  the  hydrometer,  or  by  sp.  gr. 
balls,  which  sink  or  float  according  to  the  density  of  the 
liquid  in  which  they  are  placed.  The  faeces  and  urine 
should  be  subjected  to  physical  and  chemical  tests. 
Sweat,  saliva,  and  especially  milk  should  be  likewise 
examined.  We  shall  hereafter  note  the  special  features 
of  various  excreta  and  secretions  as  altered  by  disease. 
Among  other  ejecta  the  expired  air  must  not  be  forgotten ; 
its  odour  often  leads  to  diagnostic  inferences.  Micro- 
scopical examination  enables  us  to  determine  whether 
those  constituents  of  excreta  which  have  a  definite  form 
present  their  ordinary  characters,  and  are  in  proper  pro- 
portion. The  microscope  is  a  most  useful  aid  to  diagnosis, 
and  as  having  a  wide  utility  may  be  here  mentioned. 
Moderate  powers,  as  the  -J--inch  and  J -inch  by  good  makers, 
are  sufficient  for  ordinary  diagnostic  purposes.     The  blood 


INTRODUCTION.  13 

may  be  obtained  for  examination  in  any  case ;  its  charac- 
ters in  sucb  disorders  as  leucaemia  and  anthrax  are  diag- 
nostic. Morbid  products  of  various  kinds,  as  discharges 
from  membranes  and  new  growths,  may  disclose  their 
nature  to  the  microscopical  observer,  Parasites,  as  ova, 
immature  forms,  or  adults,  may  by  this  instrument  be 
proved  to  be  present  in  active  disease  reasonably  attri- 
butable to  them.  The  spectroscope  is  now  used  by 
pathologists  and  physiologists;  its  application  to  veteri- 
nary surgery  affords  an  untrodden  path  to  reputation  for 
some  future  observer. 

In  our  examination  of  the  patient  we  require  next  to 
examine  the  special  features  of  the  case.  The  indications 
derived  from  the  observations  above  mentioned  are  usually 
of  a  general  rather  than  a  special  character,  and  at  every 
stage  of  the  examination  we  must  endeavour  to  determine 
whether  the  conditions  observed  are  due.  to  local  or  general 
disorder  ;  the  special  features  of  the  case  have  generally 
somewhat  of  a  diagnostic  character,  so  much  so  that  from 
the  messenger  sent  to  request  our  services  we  may  some- 
times learn  the  sort  of  case  which  we  are  about  to  take  in 
hand.  The  popular  names  of  disorders  are  not  without 
their  use  (thus  farm  labourers  can  understand  the  nature  of 
"  dropping  after  calving ''  to  a  certain  extent),  and  though 
not  always  correct,  will  enable  the  practitioner  to  select 
such  instruments  and  medicaments  as  are  most  likely  to 
be  urgently  required. 

Some  means  of  determination  of  symptoms  with  a  view 
to  diagnosis  are  special  in  their  application.  Thus,  men- 
suration, auscultation,  and  percussion  will  be  considered 
when  treating  of  diseases  of  the  thoracic  viscera. 

These  means,  nevertheless,  have  somewhat  a  more  ex- 
tended application ;  thus,  auscultation  has  been  recom- 
mended for  determination  of  the  presence  of  a  fcetus  in 
utero,  and  it  is  a  most  important  means  in  diagnosis  of  deep- 
seated  fractures,  while  percussion  assists  in  the  distinction 
of  tympany  from  impaction.  We  must  especially  lay  stress 
upon  the  value  of  manual  exploration,  either  by  introduc- 
tion of  the  lubricated   hand  into  the    rectum,  vagina,  or 


14  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

mouth,  or  by  manipulation  of  the  surface,  whereby  we  are 
enabled  to  ascertain  by  touch  the  form  of  superficial 
structures,  their  relations,  and  size,  determining  whether 
these  are  normal  or  abnormal.  Their  consistence  is  de- 
tected by  palpation,  skilled  touch.  The  ^'  t actus  eruditus" 
reveals  many  obscure  states,  such  as  deep-seated  ab- 
scesses, aneurisms,  &c. 

The  ophthalmoscope  and  other  valuable  instruments  are 
limited  in  their  application.  The  exploring  or  grooved 
needle   must  be   mentioned  here,   for  its  value  in   deter- 


FiQ.  1. — Exploring  trochar  (used  for  the  same  purpose  as  the  grooved  needle). 

mining  the  contents  of  fluctuating  swellings,  cavities,  and 
the  constituents  of  tumours.  It  is  so  small  as  not  to 
seriously  injure  the  parts  into  which  it  is  introduced.  Its 
groove  or  cup  brings  up  sufficient  material  for  micro- 
scopical examination.  It  is  to  us  what  the  dredge  is  to 
the  deep-sea  explorer.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the 
methods  of  observing  symptoms  suggested  by  us  require 
to  be  all  adopted  in  every  case.  Our  aim  is  to  ensure 
systematic  examination  of  those  symptoms  of  disorders 
which  from  their  general  prevalence  may  be  deemed  of 
minor  importance.  The  determination  of  the  seat  of  dis- 
order will  suggest  to  us  which  of  the  less  general  aids 
should  be  adopted  in  any  particular  case. 

Prognosis  must  depend  upon  extended  diagnosis.  It 
too  frequently  assumes  the  character  of  simple  guesswork 
or  of  empirical  surmise.  The  practitioner  should  in  fancy 
''see  through ^^  his  patient,  should  know  what  parts  are 
diseased,  their  pathological  conditions,  with  the  possibility 
of  renovation,  the  resisting  power  due  to  constitutional 
energy  of  the  patient ;  also  the  probable  influence  of  medi- 
cinal means.  He  must  note  how  the  disease  tends  to  inter- 
fere with  essential  vital  functions,  and  especially  its  influence 
upon  the  ''  vital  trio,''  the  brain,  heart,  and  lungs. 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

Death  may  be  either  systemic  or  local.  This  is  a  direct 
result  of  the  composition  of  the  body  of  cells  bound  to- 
gether to  form  a  complicated  mechanism.  Local  death  is 
of  two  kindsj  molar  and  molecular.  In  the  latter  form 
cells  die  by  themselves  and  at  different  times,  and  thus  a 
gradual  loss  of  tissue  occurs ;  the  former  results  when  a 
number  of  cells  and  other  tissue  elements  simultaneously 
succumb  to  some  injurious  influence.  Ulceration  is 
molecular,  ^gangrene  is  molar  death.  Local  death 
results  from  systemic  as  soon  as  the  amount  of  nutritive 
material  supplied  to  each  tissue  by  the  last  blood  which 
entered  it  has  been  exhausted.  So  the  most  active  tissues 
die  most  readily,  while  less  highly-organised  parts  retain 
vitality  for  some  time  after  systemic  death.  It  must  be 
remembered  also  that  the  life  of  each  part  of  the  body 
varies  in  its  duration,and  that  in  the  course  of  life  of  such 
an  individual  as  an  ox,  every  element  of  a  tissue  is  not 
always  the  same,  but  consists  of  a  number  of  short-lived 
minute  bodies  which  succeed  one  another.  The  blood  is  the 
most  important  bond  of  connection  between  all  the  body- 
cells.  Of  the  value  of  the  nervous  system  in  this  respect  we 
are  not  so  assured.  The  action  of  each  cell  depends  upon 
a  due  supply  of  fresh  blood  containing  nutritive  matter. 
Cessation  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood  is  in  every  case 
the  immediate  cause  of  death.  "  The  failure  of  the  heart 
may  arise  in  itself,  on  account  of  some  failure  in  its  nervous 
or  muscular  elements,  or  by  reason  of  some  mischief  affect- 
ing its  mechanical  working.  Or  it  may  be  due  to  some 
fault  in  its  internal  medium,  such  for  instance  as  a  want 
of  oxygenation  of  the  blood,  which  in  turn  may  be  caused 
by  either  a  change  in  the  blood  itself,  as  in  carbonic  oxide 
poisoning,  or  by  a  failure  in  the  mechanical  conditions  of 
respiration,  or  by  a  cessation  of  the  action  of  the  respira- 
tory centre.  The  failure  of  this  centre,  and,  indeed,  that 
of  the  heart  itself,  may  be  caused  by  nervous  influences 
proceeding  from  the  brain,  or  brought  into  operation  by 
means  of  the  central  nervous  system ;  it  may,  on  the  other 
hand,  be  due  to  an  imperfect  state  of  the  blood,  and  this 
in  turn  may  arise  from  the  imperfect  or  perverse  action  of 


16  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

various  secretory  or  other  tissues.  The  modes  of  death 
are  in  reality  as  numerous  as  the  possible  modifications  of 
the  various  factors  of  life ;  but  they  all  end  in  stoppage 
of  the  circulation,  and  the  withdrawal  from  the  tissues  of 
their  internal  medium"  (Foster). 

The  following  methods  of  death  may  be  remembered  : 

Death  from  ANiEMiA,  due  to  cessation  of  blood-supply, 
as  after  profuse  haemorrhage.  The  symptoms  observed  in 
such  cases  are  running  down  pulse,  respirations  irregular, 
pallor  of  visible  mucous  membranes,  coldness  of  extre- 
mities and  of  general  body-surface,  which  may  be  bedewed 
with  cold  sweats ;  dilatation  of  the  pupil,  and  loss  of 
sensibility  of  the  retina ;  loss  of  voluntary  power,  and, 
finally,  convulsions.  The  first  vital  organ  which  fails  in 
this  case  is  the  brain.  The  recumbent  position,  therefore, 
tends  to  prolong  life  by  mechanically  keeping  up  the  supply 
of  blood  to  that  important  organ. 

Transfusion  of  Blood  has  been  successfully  resorted  to 
in  such  cases  in  man.  It  is  a  dangerous  operation  to  the 
healthy  animal  from  which  the  blood  is  taken.  It  has 
been  accomplished  experimentally  in  the  lower  animals  by 
connecting  the  carotids  of  two  individuals  by  a  tube,  such 
as  an  ureter  (Percivall).  Thus,  it  has  been  proved  that 
the  blood  must  be  from  individuals  of  the  same  species. 

Death  from  Necr^mia  occurs  in  blood  diseases  where 
the  vital  fluid  has  lost  the  stimulating  power  by  which  it 
excites  the  heart  to  action,  as  a  result  of  putrid  decom- 
position. 

Death  by  Asthenia  is  sudden  cessation  of  the  hearths 
action,  and  may  be  due  to  poison  or  shock,  as  in 
lightning  injury.  After  death  the  right  side  of  the  heart 
is  found  to  contain  venous  and  the  left  arterial  blood. 
This  form  of  death  is  also  known  as  syncope,  but  this 
term  is  generally  also  applied  to  anaemic  death.  Asthenia 
sometimes  occurs  gradually,  then  the  pulse  becomes  irre- 
gular, and  the  blood  supply  to  distant  parts  of  the  body 
is  defective.      This  culminates  debilitating  disorders. 

Death  by  Asphyxia  has  been  elsewhere  described. 
Ajpnoea  does  not  cause  death,  it  accelerates  life. 


INTRODUCTION.  17 

Death  by  COma  commences  at  the  brain.  The  sym- 
ptoms present  are,  firstly,  those  due  to  deficiency  of  cere- 
bral energy,  loss  of  sensation  and  power  of  voluntary 
motion,  stupor,  with  slow  stertorous  breathing,  and  later 
the  medulla  becomes  involved,  and  the  respiratory  centre 
ceases  to  perform  its  function,  and  the  right  side  of  the 
heart  becomes  blocked  up  with  dark  blood.  Apoplexy 
causes  death  in  this  way.  Prolonged  artificial  respiration 
may  enable  the  medulla  to  regain  its  energy,  as  when 
coma  results  from  certain  poisons. 

Our  prognosis  requires  especially  diagnosis  of  the  patho- 
logical conditions  of  the  diseased  parts,  and  makes  a 
knowledge  of  morbid  anatomy,  sometimes  termed  intimate 
PATHOLOGY,  a  matter  of  the  highest  moment.  The  ana- 
tomical changes  which  occur  in  organs  during  the  progress 
of  disease  vary  according  to  the  structure  of  the  parts  and 
to  the  nature  of  the  diseased  action.  The  objects  of 
morbid  anatomy  are  to  determine  exactly  the  changes 
which  structures  undergo  as  a  result  of  diseased  processes, 
how  those  changes  are  related  to  each  other,  how  their 
Causes  have  operated  to  produce  them,  and  how  they  are 
liable  to  affect  the  wellbeing  of  the  animal.  The  methods 
of  morbid  anatomy  comprise  examination  of  all  organs, 
tissues,  and  elements  which  have  been  altered  by  disease. 
These  parts  may  be  procured  in  many  cases  from  the  living 
animal,  but  in  others  only  on  post-mortem  examination. 
They  require  to  be  subjected  to  all  available  processes, 
physical,  chemical,  microscopical, — indeed,  the  study  of 
morbid  anatomy  is  but  a  branch  of  diagnosis — the  exten- 
sion of  its  methods  as  above  enumerated.  Our  determi- 
nations of  the  changes  which  have  occurred  in  an  organ 
are  only  made  in  some  cases  after  death,  and  the  infor- 
mation thus  gained  must  be  applied  at  an  earlier  stage  of 
future  cases.  The  changes  which  structures  undergo 
during  disease  may  be  in  situation,  structure,  form,  and 
size ;  also  it  seems  that  in  some  cases  their  function  may 
be  changed  either  by  increase,  decrease,  or  perversion 
without  appreciable  alteration  in  structural  characters. 
Displacement  of  elements,  tissues,  and  organs    results  in 

2 


18  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

interference  with  function  when  sucli  displacement  also 
causes  change  of  structure.  Thus,  most  of  the  non-malig- 
nant tumours  are  said  to  consist  of  normal  tissue-elements 
out  of  place,  and  may  exist  without  seriously  disturbing  vital 
functions  until  their  bulk  causes  them  to  interfere  with 
neighbouring  parts  in  a  purely  mechanical  manner;  and  as 
soon  as  structural  changes  of  these  neighbouring  parts 
causes  them  to  become  secondarily  involved,  the  disease  as- 
sumes a  more  urgent  character.  Again,  a  displaced  bowel  in 
a  case  of  hernia  causes  no  inconvenience  nor  true  patholo- 
gical condition  until  it  becomes  strangulated,  and  thus 
structurally  disordered.  Displacement  simply  of  tissues 
seldom  occurs.  Changes  in  size  of  a  tissue-element  may 
be  of  increase  or  decrease,  and  these  may  be  due  to  altera- 
tion of  constituents,  or  to  simple  variations  in  their  quan- 
tity. The  various  degenerations  are  changes  in  consti- 
tuents generally  either  of  a  retrograde  or  a  retrospective 
character.  To  understand  this,  we  must  recall  to  our 
minds  the  elementary  structure  of  the  body.  It  originates 
as  a  simple  cell,  or  even  earlier,  perhaps,  a  simple  mass  of 
protoplasm.  This  cell  is  endowed  with  all  the  properties  of 
a  living  organism,  dependent  upon  the  high  vitality  of  its 
protoplasm  ;  hence  it  exhibits  the  phenomena  of  irritability, 
contractility,  spontaneous  power  of  movement,  and  repro- 
ductive energy.  All  the  elements  of  the  adult  body  are 
lineal  descendents  of  this  primitive  element,  but  each  has 
progressed  in  a  special  line;  hence,  in  a  muscle-cell  con- 
tractility is  the  prominent  property ;  in  a  nerve-cell  spon- 
taniety  or  irritability,  and  in  white  fibrous  tissue-corpuscles 
probably  the  control  of  local  nutrition.  Under  certain 
diseased  conditions,  each  of  these  forms  of  cell  is  liable  to 
regain  some  of  its  lost  or  dormant  powers;  thus,  the 
tissue-corpuscle  becomes  a  reproductive  cell,  and  proli- 
ferates freely  in  suppuration ;  the  muscle-cell  exhibits 
spontaneity.  Such  are  retrospective  degenerations.  Re- 
trograde metamorphoses  are  much  more  frequent,  the 
principal  being  mucoid,  colloid,  and  fatty  degenerations. 

Mucoid  Degeneration  consists  in  such  an  alteration  of 
the  tissues  that  they  assume  a  mucus-like  character.      It 


INTRODUCTION. 


19 


is  considered  to  be  generally  a  retrospective  change, 
whereby  the  primitive  characters  of  the  tissues  are 
resumed ;  it  occurs  especially  in  connective  tissues  and 
cartilages,  affecting  generally  the  intercellular  substance. 

Colloid  Degeneration  depends  upon  the  conversion  of 
the  protoplasmic  contents  of  cells  into  a  tenacious  jelly- 
like material.  The  cells  are  burst  by  accumulation  of 
this  matter,  and  considerable  lumps  of  gelatinous  material 
are  produced.  The  thyroid  body  is  the  most  frequent 
seat  of  this  change,  but  both  mucoid  and  colloid  changes 
may  occur  in  tumours,  whether  of  a  malignant  or  non- 
malignant  type.  Neither  of  these  has  any  bearing  of 
importance  upon  cattle  pathology,  though  we  shall  find  it 
occasionally  necessary  to  allude  to  them. 

Fatty  Degeneration  is  extremely  liable  to  occur  in 
organs  which  have  nerve  or  blood  supply  interfered  with, 
for  it  is  a  retrograde  process  resulting  from  deficient 
supply  or  appropriation  of  nutritive  matter.  It  is  a 
conversion  of  the  contents  of  the  cells  of  a  tissue  into  fat, 
which  may  accumulate  so  considerably  as  to  burst  the 
cell-walls,  whereby  a  secondary  process  of  diseased  action 


Mil 

Fig.  2. — Fatty  degeneration  of  the  Heart. 
After  Harley  and  Brown. 


200  diameters. 


occurs.  It  affects  especially  the  muscles,  as  also  the 
lining  membranes  of  arteries  and  the  bowels  (in  which  case 
the  epithelial  cells  are  involved) .  This  process  is  of  very 
considerable  importance,  for  it  occurs  often  when  a 
morbid  product  is  to  be  absorbed  and  passed  into  the 
blood.      Sometimes  caseous  change  supervenes  upon  this 


20  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

form  o£  degeneration,  the  part  affected  becoming  a  mass 
of  substance  of  a  cheese-like  character,  yellow  in  colour, 
inelastic,  and  rather  soft.  Tuberculous  deposits  are  very 
liable  to  undergo  this  change,  as  also  certain  malignant 
growths. 

Calcareous  Change  depends  upon  the  deposition  of 
lime  salts  in  the  intercellular  substance  of  a  tissue, 
whereby  it  assumes  a  gritty  character  and  becomes  opaque 
and  resistant.  It  occurs  very  frequently  as  a  result  of 
excessive  activity  of  the  process  which  normally  hardens 
the  costal  and  laryngeal  cartilages  of  old  animals,  and  is  a 
means  by  which  deposits  are  rendered  permanent  and 
prevented  from  absorption. 

These  processes  of  degeneration  take  place  normally 
in  certain  parts  of  the  body,  and  when  they  occur  in 
disease  are  either  in  excess  in  normal  situations,  or  in 
abnormal  sites.  The  mucoid  and  colloid  degenerations 
tend  to  softening  of  tissue.  Fatty  degeneration  places 
the  matter  in  that  condition  under  which  it  is  most 
fit  for  removal.  Caseous  change  tends  rather  to  per- 
manency, while  calcification  exhibits  this  to  a  still  more 
marked  degree.  The  calcareous  change  generally  as- 
sumes the  character  of  an  infiltration,  involving 
intercellular  tissues  rather  than  the  cellular  elements 
of  a  part,  and  resulting  from  the  deposition  of  matter 
from  the  blood  instead  of  its  production  as  a  result  of 
change  in  the  protoplasm  of  the  cells.  Fatty  infiltra- 
tion is  very  common,  involving  such  organs  as  the  liver 
and  muscles  (especially  the  heart)  in  animals  fattened  for 
slaughter.  This  proves  prejudicial  when  the  accumula- 
tions of  fat  pressing  upon  the  tissue  elements  of  the 
affected  part  impair  their  nutrition.  Accumulations  of  fat 
of  this  nature  occur  physiologically  in  the  processes  of 
fattening,  then  the  connective-tissue  corpuscles  are 
affected,  and  this  very  frequently  occurs  also  in  disease. 

Pigmentary  Infiltration  especially  affects  the  lungs 
of  old  animals. 

Amyloid  Infiltration  has  been  observed  in  the  liver, 
and  consists  in  the  deposition  from  the  blood  of  a  starchy 


INTRODUCTION.  2 1 

material^  which  gives  to  the  organ  in  which  it  occurs  a 
waxy  character.  The  process  generally  commences  in  the 
small  vessels  of  the  part.  It  has  not  been  found,  as  yet, 
to  have  much  clinical  importance.  Special  chemical, 
microscopical,  and  physical  tests  enable  us  to  determine 
the  presence  of  these  changes  in  parts.  These  will  be 
found  recorded  in  more  special  works.  Fatty,  calcareous, 
and  pigmentary  changes,  when  sufficiently  advanced  to 
produce  serious  disorder,  can  readily  be  detected  by  the 
unaided  senses  of  the  observer.  Let  it  be  clearly  under- 
stood that  all  these  degenerations  and  infiltrations  are 
physiological  processes  in  excess  or  out  of  place;  they 
may  also  be  deficient,  as  occurs  in  rachitis  where  there  is 
deficient  deposition  of  lime  in  the  bones.  They  result 
from  perverted  states  of  nutrition,  dependent  upon  con- 
ditions of  the  blood  or  of  the  cell-elements  themselves. 
Certain  forms  of  degeneration  lead  to  increase  in  the  size 
of  organs,  and  very  considerable  modification  of  form. 
The  tissues  are  so  arranged  as  to  form  solid  or  hollow 
organs.  When  the  former  are  the  seat  of  changes  their 
increase  in  size  and  change  of  form  causes  them  to  press 
upon  neighbouring  parts,  and  thereby  interfere  with 
functional  duties ;  or  softening  with  rapid  enlargement 
may  lead  to  rupture,  as  is  sometimes  seen  in  the  liver. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  very  considerable  degeneration 
of  an  organ  may  occur  without  alteration  in  bulk,  increase 
in  size  of  some  parts  atoning  for  diminution  of  others, 
and  vice  versa.  Here  we  have  a  case  of  degeneration 
with  atrophy.  When  a  hollow  organ  is  involved  in  these 
degenerative  processes  they  may  lead  to  thickening  of  its 
walls  with  or  without  diminution  of  its  cavity,  or  to 
thinning  of  the  walls — atrophy — a  condition  which,  with 
concomitant  softening,  tends  to  produce  rupture.  When 
an  organ  is  subjected  to  free  supply  of  nourishment,  with 
high  functional  activity,  it  becomes  hypertrophied,  this 
condition  consisting  of  an  increase  in  the  number  (hyper- 
plasia) or  size  of  active  tissue  elements ;  such  a  change 
must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  other  forms  of  enlarge- 
ment.     It  occurs  often    as  a  provision  against  disease  ; 


22  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

thus  the  bladder  may  have  its  walls  thickened  when  any 
obstruction  in  the  urethra  interferes  with  the  passage  of 
urine.  The  reverse  of  this  is  Atrophy  or  wasting,  which 
is  described  as  of  two  kinds,  simple  and  numerical.  The 
former  depends  upon  decrease  in  size  of  the  proper 
elements  of  a  tissue  dependent  upon  deficient  supply  of 
nutritive  matter,  the  latter  is  a  more  advanced  stage  of 
the  same  state  in  which  actual  removal  of  tissue  elements 
has  occurred.  Atrophy  may  result  from  an  imperfect 
supply  of  blood  or  from  imperfect  ability  to  appropriate 
nutritive  matter,  such  as  often  results  from  inflammation.  It 
may  be  difficult  to  ascertain  this  state  from  simple  inspec- 
tions of  organs,  for  as  the  useful  elements  are  removed  the 
connective  elements  may  be  increased  in  quantity,  or  dis- 
placement of  some  material  into  the  organ  may  serve  to 
maintain  its  size.  The  additions  op  material  to  an  organ 
in  almost  all  cases  take  place  from  the  blood,  and  hence 
have  the  character  of  infiltrations.  They  may  be  solid, 
liquid,  or  gaseous.  Liquid  matters  most  frequently  over- 
flow from  the  blood,  or  are  removed  in  excess  from  that 
fluid  by  over-excited  tissue  elements.  They  contain  solid 
matters  in  solution,  and  as  their  fluid  portions  are  most 
readily  removed  by  absorption,  solid  deposits  may  remain 
behind.  These  latter  either  become  organised  by  exten- 
sion of  vessels  into  them,  undergo  calcareous  change 
and  become  permanent  (but  in  the  condition  of  foreign 
matters),  or  undergo  retrograde  changes,  especially  the 
fatty,  and  become  absorbed.  We  shall  have  more  to 
say  about  these  processes  when  treating  on  inflammation. 
Accumulation  of  liquid  added  material  constitutes  Dropsy. 
Gas  sometimes  occurs  in  a  tissue  either  as  a  result  of 
gangrenous  change  of  the  tissues  (the  blood  for  instance) 
as  in  black  quarter,  or  as  a  result  of  ill-explained  nutri- 
tive changes  in  a  part,  or  entry  of  air  through  an  external 
or  pulmonary  wound.  The  gases  which  occur  are  such  as 
normally  exist  in  the  blood  or  the  atmosphere.  Having 
dealt  with  the  general  changes  which  structures  undergo 
as  a  result  of  diseased  processes,  we  must  next  examine 
the  characters  of  those  processes  themselves. 


INTRODUCTION.  23 

Phlegmon  or  Inflammation  is  defined  to  be  *■' perverted 
nutrition  of  a  part  resulting  from  the  application  of  a 
stimulus  not  sufficiently  powerful  to  cause  immediate 
death. ■'^  It  is  a  familiar  but  complicated  series  of  pheno- 
mena of  the  highest  pathological  importance,  since  it  occurs 
in  all  tissues,  and  varies  considerably  according  to  its  seat. 
We  may  consider  it  is  nature's  method  of  rising  to  the 
emergencies  of  injury,  whereby  repair  is  brought  about. 
In  all  cases  it  seems  to  follow  injury  of  the  part  affected ; 
thus  it  ensues  in  the  majority  of  cases  of  wounds,  and 
originates  in  internal  organs  either  as  a  result  of  local 
injury,  or  when  impressions  made  upon  the  surface  of 
the  body  have  proved  injurious  to  more  deeply  seated 
parts  through  the  intimate  nervous  unions  which  occur 
between  the  structures.  Of  these  nervous  unions  we  are 
not  yet  assured  by  physiologists.  It  cannot  be  expected, 
therefore,  that  the  pathologist  will  be  in  every  case  able 
to  determine  how  any  cause  which  he  suspects  of  having 
originated  internal  inflammation  acts.  We  accept  this 
theory  of  the  nature  of  inflammation  since  it  sufficiently 
explains  all  the  phenomena  of  that  condition  to  afford  us 
a  good  practical  basis.  Inflamed  parts  are  found  to  be  the 
seat  of  stagnation  of  blood  in  the  vessels,  of  transudation 
of  its  fluids  with  migration  of  its  formed  elements,  also 
of  an  altered  condition  of  the  tissue  elements.  Probably 
the  latter  change  is  the  most  essential,  for  it  is  marked  in 
cartilage  and  other  tissues  which  have  only  indirect  blood 
supply.  It  consists  of  high  reproductive  activity  of  these 
cells  { proliferation) J  the  products  not  being  so  highly 
developed  as  the  parent  cells.  The  stagnant  condition 
of  the  blood  in  the  vessels  is  brought  about  gradually 
through  certain  stages.  It  is  found,  by  observations  of 
the  circulation  in  the  blood-vessels  of  an  artificially  in- 
flamed transparent  membrane,  that  dilatation  of  the 
vessels  first  occurs  with  acceleration  of  the  flow  of  blood, 
which,  however,  very  soon  becomes  retarded,  then  irre- 
gular and  oscillatory  until  stagnation — "  stasis  " — ensues. 
Then  a  large  number  of  colourless  corpuscles  are  found 
to  have  accumulated  in  the  affected  vessels  near  the  walls, 


24  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

while  red  corpuscles,  aggregated  into  bundles,,  lie  nearer 
the  centre  of  the  vessels.  Migration  now  occurs  as  a 
result  especially  of  the  amoeboid  activity  of  the  white 
corpuscles,  whereby  they  are  able  to  penetrate  the  proto- 
plasmic, and,  therefore,  living  walls  of  the  capillaries. 
Thus  they,  and  sometimes  a  few  red  corpuscles,  pass  into 
the  tissue  interspaces,  and  intermingle  with  the  new 
generation  of  cells  produced  by  the  proliferation  of  the 
tissue  elements.  At  the  same  time  the  serous  portions  of 
the  stagnated  blood  transude  through  the  walls  of  the 
vessels,  and  thus  originates  effusion  as  well  as  exudation, 
for  they  are  rich  in  solids.  Effusion  of  serum  and  exuda- 
tion of  lymph  are  early  accompaniments  of  inflammation ; 
they  occur,  to  a  more  or  less  degree,  in  almost  every  case, 
and  are  the  principal  cause  of  swelling.  This  depends, 
also,  to  a  certain  extent,  upon  the  conditions  of  the 
vessels  in  the  parts  bordering  on  that  inflamed.  They 
are  very  full  of  blood  coursing  rapidly  through  them,  are 
in  a  state  of  hypersemia  or  congestion.  The  presence  of 
this  large  quantity  of  rapidly  flowing  blood,  with,  perhaps, 
also  the  rapid  tissue  changes  in  the  inflamed  part, 
generates  the  characteristic  heat;  to  the  congestion  and 
amount  of  blood,  even  in  the  seat  of  disease,  the  eedness, 
characteristic  of  inflammation,  must  be  attributed ;  while 
pressure  from  effused  material  and  distended  vessels  is 
the  cause  of  the  painful  nature  of  the  process.  The  pain 
present  must  also  be  attributed  to  heightened  sensibility 
of  the  nervous  structures.  It  is  related  to  the  hardness 
of  the  part,  hence  inflammation  of  unyielding  organs  is 
most  painful.  The  reproductive  activity  of  the  tissue 
elements  replaces  their  normal  function,  and  the  rapidity 
of  new  cell  formation  prevents  the  elaboration  of  inter- 
cellular substance,  hence  the  intercellular  material  accu- 
mulates in  a  state  of  imperfect  development  as  fluid,  and 
tends  to  increase  the  added  liquid  and  plastic  material 
which  has  been  thrown  out.  Effused  liquid  material  can 
be  taken  up  again  by  the  capillaries  and  lymphatics  of  a 
part  with  facility  if  the  vessels  have  not  themselves 
undergone    change.       When    the    latter    complication    is 


INTRODUCTION.  25 

present  fluid  accumulations  occurs  which  constitute 
CEdema  when  they  are  in  areolar  tissue,  and  Dropsy 
(hydrops)  when  into  cavities  of  various  kinds.  These  may 
take  place  apart  from  inflammation  when  an  excess  of 
liquid  material  exists  in  the  blood,  or  when  the  vessels 
are  over-distended.  The  former  condition  occurs  in  cases 
of  debility  resulting  from  defective  supply  of  nutritive 
matter ;  also  certain  poisonous  materials  aggravate  their 
effects  by  causing  excessive  fluidity  of  the  vital  fluid.  An 
illustration  of  the  latter  condition  may  be  drawn  from 
general  dropsy,  whereby  excessive  distension  of  the  veins 
is  relieved  when  any  obstruction  prevents  return  of  the 
blood  to  the  right  side  of  the  heart.  When  the  material 
added  to  a  part  has  a  more  solid  character,  it  primarily 
assumes  the  form  of  Coagulable  Lymph.  This  is  fibrinous 
material  which  is  deposited  between  tissue  elements,  ren- 
dering the  parts  abnormally  hard,  or  as  bands  extending 
across  cavities,  also  membranes  lining  them,  and  it  will 
be  noticed  in  the  straw-coloured  liquid  portion  of  the 
serous  effusion.  When  all  active  inflammatory  change 
has  subsided,  the  lymph  tends  either  to  permanency  or 
to  disappearance.  It  may  be  rendered  permanent  either 
by  organisation,  when  vessels  shoot  into  it  by  ordinary 
processes  of  development  and  it  thus  becomes  vascular  and 
in  process  of  time  somewhat  like  areolar  tissue,  or  by 
calcareous  deposition  in  its  substance.  The  former  change 
occurs  in  the  repairs  of  any  large  gap  of  living  tissue  which 
has  resulted  from  injury.  It  causes  filling  up  of  abscess 
cavities,  and  of  deep  penetrating  wounds,  but  is  not 
always  so  salutary ;  for  when  it  occurs  in  such  a  cavity  as 
the  pleural  sac,  by  uniting  the  lungs  to  the  wall  of  the 
chest,  it  may  seriously  impede  respiration.  Calcification  is 
the  process  which  normally  occurs  in  the  hardening  of  lymph 
between  the  fragments  of  a  broken  bone  forming  the  mass 
known  as  callus.  Its  appearance  is  not  always  desirable, 
thus  when  it  takes  place  in  the  walls  of  arteries  it  renders 
them  liable  to  rupture,  and  frequently  its  presence  acts  as  an 
impediment  to  movement,  as  when  false  anchylosis  results 
from  the  calcification  of  ligaments  around  joints. 


26 


BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 


Suppuration  is  tliat  result  of  inflammation  which  is 
manifested  by  the  production  of  the  fluid  which  is  familiar 
to  us  as  pus.  It  results  especially  when  inflammation 
runs  high  in  a  very  vascular  organ,  but  may  occur  under 
different  circumstances.  Pus  consists  of  highly  active 
corpuscles,  which  closely  resemble  white  blood-corpuscles, 
and  float  in  serous  fluid — Liquor  Puris.  It  has  a  sp.  gr. 
of  1030.  This  fluid  is  simply  the  effused  material  with  a 
large  number  of  cells  resulting  from  proliferation  of 
tissue  elements,  and  migration  of  leucocytes.     This  result 


/P 


Fig  3. — A.  Pus  corpuscles  from  an  abscess  ;  (a)  the  same  after  treatment 
with  acetic  acid.  B.  Mucus  corpuscles  from  the  Schneiderian  mem- 
brane J  (a)  after  a  drop  of  acetic  acid  has  been  added.  C.  Mucus 
corpuscles  speckled  with  pigment  granules  from  a  case  of  chronic 
irritation  of  lining  membrane  of  the  larynx.     After  Hurley  and  Brown. 


of  inflammation  is  most  frequent  when  a  natural  moisture 
of  the  part  and  capability  of  yielding  to  swelling  are 
properties  of  the  diseased  organ  or  tissue.  While  exuda- 
tion most  frequently  occurs  on  serous  membranes,  the 
mucous  surfaces  generally  when  inflamed  produce  pus  ;  but 
pus  may  be  produced  by  a  serous  membrane  and  plastic 
deposits  by  a  mucous  membrane,  such  as  that  of  the  bowel 
or  trachea.      When  suppuration  assumes  a  local  character. 


INTRODUCTION.  27 

and  the  pus  which  is  formed  accumulates  in  the  areolar 
tissue,  it  exerts  a  solvent  action  upon  the  white  fibrous 
elements,  and  thus  produces  an  Abscess.  Ordinarily  we 
may  observe  that  the  inflammatory  process,  where  less 
acute  at  a  distance  from  the  centre  of  pus  production, 
causes  exudation  of  lymph  which  limits  the  infiltration 
of  pus  into  the  neighbouring  tissues,  and  constitutes  the 
boundary  of  the  abscess  cavity,  though  forming  no 
distinct  membrane.  This  firm  limiting  tissue  gives 
way  with  extension  of  suppuration,  and  at  the  same 
time,  the  parts  external  to  it,  which  previously  were  only 
the  seat  of  effusion  of  serum,  have  lymph  exuded,  and  thus 
in  turn  prevent  infiltration  of  pus  into  the  undiseased 
areolar  tissue.  So,  in  puncturing  a  large  or  a  small 
deep-seated  abscess  we  pierce  first  tissue  with  serous 
effusion,  then  tissue  with  lymph  exudation,  and  so  arrive 
at  the  abscess  cavity.  In  chronic  abscesses  the  inflam- 
mation has  subsided,  as  also  has  the  serous  effusion. 
The  lymph  deposit  has  become  organised  to  form  a  wall 
of  the  abscess  cavity  in  which  has  accumulated  pus,  often 
of  a  foetid  character,  but  sometimes  broken  up  into  the 
liquid  serous  portion  and  the  solid  materials,  the  latter 
being  converted  into  more  or  less  regularly  rounded  and 
hardened  masses  of  a  curdy  or  cheesy  character,  which 
are  bathed  by  the  fluid.  These  abscesses  are  sometimes 
termed  cold;  they  are  seen  in  deep-seated  positions 
where  the  inflammation  has  been  only  moderate  in 
intensity. 

Purulent  Infiltration  occurs  when  collections  of  pus 
are  allowed  to  enter  the  areolar  tissue  of  an  organ,  either 
by  non-deposition  of  lymph  circumscribing  the  seat  of  pus 
formation  and  leading  to  abscess,  or  by  the  giving  way  of 
only  a  thin  layer  of  this  material.  It  is  especially  liable 
to  occur  in  the  less  active  forms  of  inflammation,  and  in 
organs  with  a  considerable  amount  of  areolar  tissue  ;  thus, 
it  may  be  observed  in  scrofulous  disease  of  the  lungs,  and 
leads  to  rapid  spread  of  diseased  action.  Sometimes  pus 
is  found  in  serous  cavities.  When  the  pleura  is  the  seat 
of  this  the  disease  is  termed  eyajpyema.      This  state  seldom. 


28  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

i£  ever,  results  from  pus  production  by  the  serous  mem- 
brane, but  from  bursting  of  an  abscess  into  tbe  serous 
sac.  It  has  been  observed  that  layers  of  fibrous  tissue, 
fascisB,  aponeuroses,  limit  the  extent  of  abscesses.  A 
knowledge  of  the  position  of  these  is,  therefore,  important 
from  a  surgical  aspect,  for  when  externally  placed  to  the 
pus  accumulation  they  oppose  that  extension  of  the  abscess 
towards  the  surface  which  leads  to  evacuation  of  the  pus 
by  bursting  through  the  skin.  The  local  symptoms  of  for- 
mation of  an  abscess  are  primarily  hardness  of  the  diseased 
parts,  with  an  oedematous  condition  of  the  tissues  around, 
with  elevation  of  temperature,  and  throbbing  of  the  arteries 
of  supply ;  then  the  centre  of  the  seat  gradually  becomes 
softer,  and  at  length  fluctuates  on  pressure.  The  part  is 
swollen  and  most  prominent  centrally.  After  this  the  fluc- 
tuation extends  from  the  centre,  where  the  hairs  fall  off,  and 
a  slight  amount  of  serous  fluid  exudes  until  the  pressure  of 
pus  in  the  abscess  bursts  the  skin,  which  has  been  much 
attenuated  by  absorption,  and  thus  the  pent-up  fluid 
escapes  ;  and  any  which  forms  after  this  also  escapes,  for 
nature  has  produced  an  opening  with  a  jagged  edge,  such 
as  does  not  readily  close.  As  the  pus,  which  is  now  pro- 
duced, exerts  no  pressure  on  the  abscess-walls,  a  rapid 
closure  of  the  cavity  results  from  deposition  of  lymph 
around  its  walls,  each  layer  undergoing  changes  which 
terminate  in  conversion  of  them,  in  order  of  seniority,  into 
an  organised  tissue  somewhat  resembling  the  white  fibrous. 
This  process  is  termed  granulation.  By  it,  finally,  the 
cavity  is  filled  ;  then  the  external  wound  closes.  Escape 
of  pus  by  bursting  of  an  abscess  on  to  the  surface  of  the 
body,  or  of  a  mucous  membrane,  is  a  very  salutary  process. 
But  it  may  take  place  into  serous  cavities  and  other  in- 
ternal spaces  when  the  result  is  not  so  satisfactory. 
Evacuation  of  pus  from  a  mucous  membrane  is  often  to  be 
encouraged  as  being  nature's  method  of  relief  of  its  in- 
flamed state.  When  pus  does  not  become  removed  by 
natural  or  artificial  evacuation,  its  permanence  or  the 
reverse  will  depend  upon  the  state  of  the  vessels  of  the 
parts,   and  also   on   whether  its  corpuscles   undergo   the 


INTEODUCTION.  29 

retrograde  process  of  fatty  degeneration,  pus-cells  seem 
to  be  never  absorbed.  When  they  have  undergone  fatty 
change,  and  with  the  Liquor  Puris  form  the  so-called 
Pathological  Milk,  this  may  be  taken  up,  just  as  so  much 
chyle  would  be,  by  the  lymph-vessels.  The  blood-capil- 
laries probably  assist,  but  when  neither  blood  nor  lymph- 
vessels  can  take  up  the  metamorphosed  or  unchanged  pus, 
a  cold  abscess  results.      Pus  is  of  various  kinds  : 

Laudable,  when  it  has  a  creamy,  whitish-yellow  ap- 
pearance ;  is  devoid  of  smell  and  rich  in  corpuscles.  This 
is  the  form  which  is  familiar  to  us  as  occurring  in  well- 
matured  abscesses. 

Foetid,  when  it  has  undergone  decomposition,  either 
from  a  long  pent-up  condition,  or  from  a  depraved  state 
of  the  parts  producing  it. 

Sanious,  when  it  is  thin  and  watery,  and  intermingled 
with  blood  in  small  quantity. 

Ichorous,  when  thin,  watery,  almost  devoid  of  cor- 
puscles, largely  made  up  of  cell  debris,  and  often  with  a 
marked  odour,  and  an  acrid,  irritating  character.  This 
is  produced  in  parts  which  are  of  low  organisation,  or 
have  been  reduced  in  vitality  by  long  continued  diseased 
action.  It  occurs  in  diseases  of  the  feet  in  long  standing 
fistulous  ulcers,  where  the  healing  process  is  at  a  stand- 
still. 

Specific,  when  it  contains  the  virus  of  some  specific 
disorder,  as  when  it  is  produced  by  the  mucous  mem- 
branes in  cattle  plague.  Such  pus  when  used  for  inocu- 
lation transmits  the  specific  disorder. 

Strumous,  when  resulting  from  the  breaking  down  of 
tubercle.  This  is  white,  watery,  and  has  specific  cha- 
racters. 

Pus  may  be  mixed  with  other  fluids  as  in  muco-purulent 
discharges  from  mucous  membranes.  The  characters  of 
Inspissated  Pus  which  occurs  in  chronic  abscesses  have  been 
already  alluded  to. 

Caries  and  Ulceration  are  processes  of  molecular  dis- 
integration, which  sometimes  occur  when  inflammation 
cuts  off  the  nutritive  supply  of  a  part  in  a  gradual  manner. 


30  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

Caries  especially  affects  articular  surfaces  of  bones  as  well 
as  those  portions  invested  by  fibro- cartilage.  In  it  no 
tendency  to  repair  is  exhibited  but  the  process  of  exten- 
sion of  the  disorder  progresses  slowly,  and  removal  of  the 
articular  lamina  of  the  bone  by  molecular  disintegration 
leads  to  death  of  the  cartilage  which  it  supports,  and  so 
to  roughness  of  a  surface  which  for  due  performance  of  its 
functions  ought  to  be  smooth.  Hence  results  secondary 
disease  of  the  opposing  surface,  whether  articular  or  ten- 
dinous. The  process  of  caries  is  remarkable  for  the  small 
amount  of  liquid  product,  and  hence  generally  the  absence 
of  marked  distension  of  the  joint  capsule  or  wall  of  the 
tendinous  sheath.  Ulceration  is  of  much  more  general 
occurrence,  and  as  removal  of  tissue  occurs  at  one  part, 
repair  takes  place  at  another.  Pus  is  produced  often  in 
very  considerable  quantity  by  ulcers,  and  may  be  of  any 
of  the  different  kinds  mentioned  above.  Ulcers  are  local 
deficiencies  of  structure,  which  generally  appear  on  mucous 
membranes  or  the  skin  as  breaches  of  the  epithelial  layer, 
with  the  deeper  layers  of  the  membrane  more  or  less  in- 
volved. In  the  cornea  we  sometimes  see  ulcers  consisting 
in  local  deficiency  of  the  tissue  of  the  cornea  propria,  in 
which  the  conjunctiva  is  not  involved ;  this  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  latter  membrane  is  supplied  with  nutriment 
from  a  different  source  than  the  cornea.  As  a  rule,  the 
epithelium  is  nourished  by  the  deep-seated  structures,  and 
is  early  involved  in  the  diseased  process.  We  must  not  in 
all  cases  consider  ulceration  due  to  death  of  tissue-elements ; 
it  probably  much  more  frequently  results  from  cell  pro- 
liferation, which,  replacing  the  parent  by  numerous  cor- 
puscles in  a  fluid  medium,  leads  to  breach  of  tissue,  and 
formation  of  a  fluid  with  suspended  cells,  which  either 
escapes  as  pus,  or  is  removed  by  the  action  of  absorbent 
vessels.  The  breaches  of  tissue  resulting  from  ulceration 
and  suppuration  are  repaired  by  Granulation.  This  con- 
sists in  the  production  of  small  pointed  projections  over 
the  exposed  surface,  which  are  found  to  be  composed  of 
cells,  the  deeper  seated  of  which  undergo  organisation, 
while    the    superficial    degenerate    into    pus.       By   their 


INTRODUCTION. 


31 


growtK  these  projections  coalesce,  and  new  blood-vessels 
shoot  into  them  from  the  neighbouring  parts.  Thus,  by 
formation  of  successive  crops  of  granulations,  their  fusion 
and  organisation,  the  ulcer  is  constantly  reduced  in  size 
whenever  the  activity  of  repair  exceeds  that  of  disin- 
tegration. Thus,  also,  we  generally  see  pus  produced  in 
considerable  quantity  from  a  granulating  surface  ;  but  it 
seems  possible  by  means  of  dressings  to  increase  granula- 
tion at  the  expense  of  suppuration,  and  thus  promote 
rapidity  of  healing  of  a  wound.  The  granulation  tissue 
tends  to  the  conversion  of  its  cells  (exudation  corpuscles) 


#©1 


FiG.  4.— Granulation  tissue.  (After  Gant.)  To  the  left,  granulation  corpuscles 
with  rounded  pus  cells.     To  the  right,  the  newly  formed  vascular  loops. 

into  proper  tissue-elements  resembling  those  of  ordinary 
fibrous  tissues.  The  process  of  cicatrisation,  whereby  the 
breach  is  ''skinned  over,''  will  be  dealt  with  when  we 
treat  especially  of  wounds.  Ulcers  are  of  various  kinds, 
according  to  their  shape,  products,  causes,  and  granula- 
tions. 

The  Simple  or  Healthy  Ulcer  occurs  in  animals  of 
healthy  constitution,  presents  small,  vascular  granulations, 
uniform  in  size  and  in  diffusion  over  the  surface,  which  is 
concave.  Laudable  pus  is  produced,  and  the  edges  are 
not  hard. 

The  Inflammatory  Ulcer  depends  upon  an  irritable  state 
of  the  constitution,  and  presents  few  granulations,  a  raw 


32  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

appearance,  and  ichorous  or  sanious  pus.  When  the  irri- 
tation is  local,  it  gives  rise  to  excess  in  size  and  extreme 
painfulness  of  granulations,  while  the  surrounding  parts 
are  congested  and  oedematous — such  is  an  Inflamed 
Ulcer. 

Weah  Ulcers  have  large,  oedematous,  pale,  flabby- 
granulations  ;   they  occur  on  oedematous  organs. 

Callous  Ulcers  are  usually  deep  with  pale  base,  pre- 
senting small,  imperfectly  formed  granulations,  and  having 
an  ichorous  discharge  of  tissue  debris.  The  borders  of 
the  ulcer  are  thickened,  hard,  and  project  considerably. 

A  Fistula,  or  Sinus,  often  has  this  character.  Fistula3 
penetrate  deeply  into  parts,  and  open  at  each  extremity. 
Sinuses  have  only  one  opening  to  each ;  but  we  may  have 
fistulae  and  sinuses  which  present  all  the  characters  of 
healthy  ulcers  except  their  shallowness. 

Specific  Ulcers  are  such  as  occur  in  specific  diseases. 
Sometimes  these  lesions  are  diagnostic,  but  often  their 
special  character  may  be  proved  only  by  the  nature  of  the 
pus  produced  by  them. 

A  Cold  Ulcer  is  surrounded  by  a  purple  ring  of  con- 
gested tissue,  and  is  of  a  very  painful  character.  It  is 
very  often  specific,  and  results  from  marked  deficiency  in 
circulatory  energy  in  the  affected  part.  It  occurs  under 
a  special  form  in  those  parts  of  old  animals  which  are  far 
from  the  centre  of  circulation.  It  is  then  termed  ^'  Senile 
Ulcer/'  and  is  characterised  by  a  deficient  tendency  to 
repair  with  a  liability  to  rapid  spread  by  sloughing  of 
tissue.  Thus,  several  ulcers  "  run  together,'^  producing 
a  widespread  breach  of  tissue.  They  are  then  said  to  be 
Confluent  Ulcers,  and  this  tendency  to  blending  of  ulcers 
is  marked  in  several  specific  disorders. 

The  Phagedcenic  Ulcer  rapidly  spreads  by  sloughing  of 
masses  of  neighbouring  tissue.  A  large  foul  surface  with 
an  ichorous  discharge  is  thus  left.  This  serves  to  draw 
our  attention  to  molar  death,  which  may  result  from  in- 
flammation, and  is  termed  Gangrene,  depending  upon  the 
processes  which  constitute  sphacelus  or  mortification. 
When  the  supply  of  blood  is  cut  off  from  an  organ  or  any 


INTRODUCTION.  33 

part  of  the  body  it  dies^  and  chemical  forces  are  enabled 
to  bring  about  its  decomposition.  Sometimes  the  blood  is 
not  permitted  entry  into  a  part  through  obstruction  of 
the  arteries  of  supply ;  then  dry  gangrene  may  take 
place,  which  consists  in  the  drying  up  of  the  tissues,  their 
diminution  in  size,  and  complete  loss  of  all  vital  pro- 
perties. The  dry,  mummified  mass  remains  as  a  foreign 
body,  perhaps  becoming  invested  by  a  coating  of  lymph. 
This  has  been  observed  in  the  case  of  pleuro-pneumonic 
lung.  When  a  part  is  the  seat  of  moist  gangrene,  it  be- 
comes very  dark  in  colour,  pits  on  pressure,  swells  in  con- 
sequence of  the  liberation  of  gases  by  decomposition  and 
their  accumulation  beneath  the  epidermis/which  they  raise 
in  spots  forming  hlehs.  A  sanious  discharge  with  foetid 
odour  takes  place  from  the  surface  of  the  mass,  which  is 
sodden  with  a  similar  material,  and  has  lost  all  sensation 
and  other  physiological  processes,  and  is  very  cold. 
Moist  gangrene  is  more  frequent  than  the  dry  form, 
and  depends  on  impeded  return  of  blood.  A  part 
which  has  thus  undergone  mortification  is  removed  by 
sloughing.  Salutary  inflammation  sets  in  on  the  line  of 
junction  of  the  dead  with  the  living  parts,  and  here  con- 
solidation by  exudation  takes  place  to  prevent  infiltration 
of  gangrenous  material  into  healthy  parts.  Suppuration 
of  this  consolidated  layer  occurs,  and  thus  the  dead  mass 
is  thrown  off.  Molar  death  of  bony  tissue  is  termed 
Necrosis,  and  the  portion  of  removed  material  is  a 
Sequestrum.  During  this  process  of  gangrene  the  con- 
stitutional powers  are  much  diminished,  the  pulse  being 
small  and  weak  and  frequent,  and  the  strength  rapidly 
failing.  The  animal  has  a  wild,  apprehensive  look,  and  is 
very  restless  ;  cold  sweats  bedew  the  skin,  and  there  is  a 
gangrenous  odour.  Sudden  cessation  of  pain  often 
announces  this  result  of  inflammation.  The  termination  of 
the  case  will  be  favorable  or  otherwise,  according  as  the 
strength  of  the  body  proves  equal  to  removal  of  the  slough 
or  the  reverse.  In  old  age  senile  gangrene  may  occur  as  a 
result  of  deficiency  of  vital  energy,  affecting  especially  those 
parts  most  remote  from  the  central  organ  of  circulation. 

3 


34  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

Resolution  is  a  termination  of  inflammation  most  to  be 
desired ;  it  consists  in  the  gradual  resumption  of  healthy 
conditions  of  the  diseased  part.  In  it  the  products  of 
cell  proliferation  are  absorbed,  lymphj  deposits  and  serous 
effusions  undergo  the  same  fate,  and  the  blocking  up  of 
the  vessels  which  has  resulted  in  stasis  gives  way,  so  that 
healthy  circulation  is  resumed.  When  this  process  occurs 
very  suddenly,  as  when  only  stasis  and  effusion  of  serum 
have  to  be  overcome,  a  few  hours  suffices  for  resolution, 
which  is  then  termed  Delitescence.  Occasionally  this  is 
related  to  appearance  of  inflammation  in  some  other  organ, 
when  it  is  termed  Metastasis,  a  phenomenon  which  occurs 
very  frequently  in  rheumatic  affections.  How  this  is 
brought  about  we  are  not  in  a  position  to  say.  Cases  of 
false  metastasis  have  been  found  to  be  due  to  direct  con- 
tinuity of  structure,  and  true  alteration  of  the  seat  of  an 
inflammation  may  be  due  to  the  ill-ascertained  conditions 
of  nerve  continuity.  There  are  various  terms  used  to 
indicate  the  forms  assumed  by  inflammation  as  dependent 
on  consitutional  or  local  conditions  : 

Specific,  when  it  depends  upon  the  presence  of  special 
materies  morhi, 

Teaumatic,  when  it  is  due  to  local  injury  from  without 
through  mechanical,  chemical,  thermal,  and  other  agen- 
cies. 

Idiopathic,  when  not  attributable  to  any  such  cause. 

Sthenic,  when  occurring  in  a  constitution  with  high 
vital  energy,  and  tending  to  the  throwing  out  of  plastic 
lymph,  which  rapidly  undergoes  organisation,  or  to  sup- 
puration. The  pulse  being  full  and  strong,  and  the 
internal  temperature  high,  and  the  nervous  system  in  a 
state  of  high  activity,  these  cases  run  their  course  in  a 
short  time. 

Asthenic,  when  tending  to  assume  a  low  character  with 
imperfect  lymph  deposits  which  do  not  circumscribe  the 
accumulations  of  badly  matured  pus,  which^  therefore, 
tends  to  spread  widely  by  infiltration  into  neighbouring 
parts.  This  leads  to  extensive  destruction  of  tissue,  and 
a   depressed   state   of   the   constitution,    the    pulse  being 


INTRODUCTION.  35 

weak,  quick,  and  often  irregular,  and  the  temperature 
being  liable  to  marked  variations.  This  depends  upon  a 
depraved  condition  of  the  blood  in  the  majority  of  cases. 

Acute  Inflammation  is  of  the  sthenic  type,  running  its 
course  with  well-marked  symptoms,  and  passing  rapidly 
either  to  resolution  or  to  suppuration,  ulceration,  or  gan- 
grene. 

In  the  CHRONIC  form  both  local  and  general  sym- 
ptoms are  slight ;  the  tendency  is  to  firmness  and  organi- 
sation of  deposits  with  permanency  of  effects,  and  the 
conditions  which  are  set  on  foot  by  it  are  slow.  Inflam- 
mation is  considerably  influenced  in  its  course  and  effects 
by  the  tissue  in  which  it  is  located;  thus,  we  shall  notice 
that  mucous  membranes  thus  affected  tend  to  suppurate, 
fibrous  tissues  to  undergo  calcification,  serous  and 
synovial  to  exudation  of  lymph,  cartilage  to  caries  and 
ulceration,  &c. 

Congestion  is  a  form  of  diseased  action,  second,  indeed, 
to  inflammation  in  importance  and  complexity,  but  never- 
theless exercising  an  important  influence  upon  pathology. 
Dr.  Williams  distinguishes  between  congestion  and 
hypersemia,  considering  the  former  to  differ  from  the 
latter  in  that  retardation  of  movement  of  blood  through  the 
affected  part  has  occurred.  In  both  cases  there  is  excess 
of  blood  in  the  part,  but  in  hyperaemia  the  flow  is  rapid 
and  the  outfall  as  great  as  the  income.  Hypergemia  is, 
therefore,  not  disease  ;  it  occurs  in  every  organ  or  tissue 
which  is  in  a  state  of  activity.  Congestion  may  be  active, 
passive,  or  mechanical. 

Active  Congestion  is  that  accumulation  of  blood  in  a 
part  which  occurs  when  the  income  is  great  but  the  out- 
fall is  small.  It  occurs  as  a  result  of  irritation,  precedes 
the  inflammatory  process,  and  often  is  confused  with 
hyperasmia. 

Passive  Congestion  results  from  a  relaxed  condition  of 
the  small  arteries  and  the  capillaries  of  a  part  depending 
upon  deficiency  of  tone,  so  the  flow  of  blood  becomes 
slow,  and  the  vessels  distended.  It  may  arise  either  from 
local  or   general  disorder  of  the  vessels,  from   imperfect 


36  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

action  of  the  hearty  or  from  a  depraved  condition  of  the 
blood. 

Mechanical  Congestion  depends  upon  impediment  to 
return  of  blood  from  a  part  in  consequence  of  pressure  on 
the  veins  ;  it  generally  assumes  the  passive  character.  In 
active  congestion  there  is  swelling,  pain,  redness,  and 
heat,  with  an  exaltation  rather  than  a  perversion  of  func- 
tion, but  practically  it  is  extremely  diflficult  to  distinguish 
from  inflammation  upon  which  it  verges.  Passive  con- 
gestion is  indicated  by  swelling  due  to  serous  extra- 
vasation, coldness  and  deficient  vitality  of  the  part,  which 
has  a  dark  blue  colour.  The  swelling  is  influenced  by 
position  of  the  patient,  for  it  is  caused  by  a  watery  fluid 
devoid  of  plastic  elements.  Such  swellings  may  dis- 
appear very  rapidly  and  occur  in  pendulous  positions. 
Congestion  terminates  either  in  inflammation  or  resolu- 
tion, and  may  persist  for  a  long  time,  giving  rise  to 
ExTEAVASATiONS,  either  serous  or  sanguineous,  or  mixed 
(sero-sanguineous) . 

Seeous  Exteavasation  may  occur  either  on  a  serous  or 
mucous  surface,  or  into  intercellular  spaces.  It  may  be  seen 
in  the  early  stages  of  catarrh  of  various  mucous  membranes, 
and,  mingling  with  mucus,  constitutes  the  discharge  of  the 
early  stages  of  inflammations  of  those  structures.  When 
serum  is  extravasated  into  a  serous  cavity  as  a  result  of 
congestion,  it  is  a  salutary  relief  to  the  diseased  parts,  and 
the  liquid  can  be  readily  returned  into  the  blood,  for  the 
serous  cavities  are  only  large  dilatations  of  lymph-vessels. 
Intercellular  collections  of  serum  are  similar  in  their 
pathological  importance.  Sometimes,  however,  accumu- 
lations of  serous  or  sero-sanguineous  fluid  appear  on  the 
surface  of  the  body  as  a  result  of  injury  ;  the  surrounding 
areolar  tissue  becomes  condensed  and  retains  the  fluid. 
Incision  into  these  "  serous  abscesses "  is  sometimes 
necessary. 

Sanguineous  extravasation  is  known  as  H^morehage. 
It  depends  either  upon  a  depraved  state  of  the  blood,  or 
on  a  giving  way  of  the  walls  of  vessels.  Not  only  in  the 
latter  case  is  unaltered  blood  displaced,  but  it  is  allowed 


INTRODUCTION.  37 

that  a  migration  of  red  corpuscles  (diapedesis)  as  well 
as  of  white  may  occur  from  the  vessels  under  certain 
circumstances.  Ha3morrhage  is  traumatic  when  due  to 
injury  from  without,  and  idiopathic  when  dependent 
on  intrinsic  causes.  Traumatic  hsBmorrhage  may  be 
due  to  injury  of  arteries,  veins,  heart,  or  capillaries, 
and  will  be  treated  more  at  length  under  the  heading 
"  Wounds."  Idiopathic  blood-extravasation  may  be 
active  or  passive. 

Active  Haemorrhage  occurs  in  plethoric  subjects,  and  is 
preceded  by  active  congestion.  It  results  from  a  giving 
way  of  the  walls  of  capillary  vessels,  and  the  blood  which 
thus  escapes  is  considerable  in  quantity,  of  a  bright  colour, 
flows  rapidly,  and  coagulates  freely.  Passive  hemorrhage 
generally  depends  upon  debility  and  a  disordered  state  of 
the  blood.  It  occurs  in  organs  which  have  been  weakened 
by  disease,  and  is  often  a  symptom  of  some  value.  The 
escape  of  blood  tends  to  still  further  reduce  the  strength 
of  the  patient.  In  certain  blood  disorders  we  find  extra- 
vasations of  blood,  either  considerable  infiltrations  of 
areolar  tissue  {hemorrhagic  infarctions),  or  circumscribed 
small  patches  of  blood,  petechia.  Rupture  of  the  wall 
of  a  vessel,  fracture  of  bone,  and  other  lesions  of  a  like 
kind,  are  known  in  surgery  as  "  Solutions  of  Continuity." 
These  give  rise  to  disorder  only  when  the  continuity  of 
structure  is  essential  to  due  performance  of  function ; 
thus,  a  solution  of  continuity  of  horn  may  be  present  and 
give  rise  to  no  inconvenience  if  the  sensitive  structures 
beneath  be  not  exposed  to  injury,  as  from  compression. 
Again,  a  simple  incised  wound,  when  the  parts  are  brought 
and  maintained  in  contact,  may  become  obliterated  by 
simple  growth  without  the  intervention  of  inflammation. 
In  bones  continuity  is  essential  to  render  them  firm  bases 
of  support.  Fractures,  therefore,  interfere  with  function, 
and  must  be  carefully  studied.  The  walls  of  blood-vessels 
are  constantly  subjected  to  pressure  by  the  contained 
blood,  when  a  solution  of  their  continuity  takes  place, 
therefore,  HiEMORRHAGE  results. 

In  the  present  state  of  pathology  we  must  admit  the 


38  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

existence  of  certain  functional  disoedees,  on  the  under- 
standing that  they  will  probably,  with  improvement  of 
methods  of  research,  be  proved  to  be  due  to  alteration  of 
structure.  The  term  ^^  Functional  disease  '^  is  of  value 
clinically,  especially  in  relation  to  disorders  of  the  nervous 
system  and  other  parts,  with  the  physiology  of  which  we 
are  not  very  well  acquainted,  but  as  our  knowledge  of 
physiology  and  its  relation  to  structure  advances,  we 
trace  such  disorders  to  appreciable  changes  of  struc- 
ture. Functional  disease  of  the  rumen  occurs  in  some 
cases,  and  leads  to  accumulation  of  gas  and  food  in  that 
viscus.  Probably  the  derangement  is  due  to  nervous 
disturbance,  for  such  accumulation  is  found  in  many 
brain  diseases.  We  must  be  understood,  therefore,  to 
imply  a  certain  amount  of  ignorance  when  we  speak  of 
disorder  of  function. 

In  conducting  a  post-mortem  examination  we  must  be 
as  systematic  and  thorough  as  circumstances  will  allow, 
so  that  we  shall  be  in  a  position  to  give  evidence  on  each 
case  to  either  legal  or  medical  authorities.  The  note- 
book should  be  in  constant  use,  and  we  must  adopt  an 
established  routine,  to  be  varied  as  little  as  possible  with 
the  exigencies  of  time,  place,  &c.  Thus,  the  external 
evidences  of  disorder  must  first  be  noted,  position,  expres- 
sion and  rigidity  of  the  patient ;  then  the  presence  of  dis- 
order of  the  skin  and  visible  mucous  membranes,  any  indi- 
cation of  discharges  or  of  injury,  the  age,  sex,  condition,  and 
breed  of  the  animal,  also  special  circumstances  of  history. 
The  carcase  of  the  ox  in  the  field  must  be  supported  by 
means  of  pitchforks  so  placed  as  to  sustain  the  limbs  like 
props.  In  the  cow-house,  or  barn,  or  shed,  the  limbs  of 
one  side  may  be  supported  by  ropes  thrown  over  a  beam. 
In  opening  the  peritoneal  sac  by  incisions  through  the 
abdominal  walls  the  conditions  of  the  peritoneum  and  the 
position  and  general  appearance  of  the  abdominal  organs 
must  be  observed,  also  any  abnormality  of  the  contents  of 
the  peritoneal  sac,  which  may  be  bloody,  purulent,  loaded 
with  flocculi  of  lymph,  contain  food  material,  &c.  The 
stomachs,  with  the  intestines,  should  then  be  removed. 


IXTRODUCTION.  39 

and  thus  the  liver,  kidneys,  diaphragm,  and  genito-urinary 
organs  are  more  or  less  exposed.  The  situation  of  each 
of  these  should  be  examined  before  removal,  any  abnormal 
relations  and  adhesions  being  carefully  noted.  To 
thoroughly  examine  the  genito-urinary  apparatus  one  of 
the  hind  limbs  should  be  removed  from  the  hip,  and  the 
symphysis  of  the  os  innominatum  and  the  neck  of  one 
ilium  cut  through  with  the  saw,  and  the  portion  of  bone 
thus  loosened  removed.  Next,  the  thoracic  viscera  should 
be  subjected  to  scrutiny,  the  articulations  between  the 
sterno- costal  cartilages  and  the  true  ribs  having  been 
divided,  some  of  the  anterior  sterno-costal  cartilages 
of  false  ribs  may  be  cut  through,  and  thus  the  sternum 
drawn  away  from  its  position  and  forwards.  To  do  this 
the  connections  of  the  fore  extremities  with  the  trunk 
must  be  divided,  and  the  skin  reflected  from  the  median 
inferior  longitudinal  line  of  the  body.  During  this 
process  dropsical  collections  or  diseased  conditions  of  the 
axillary  lymphatic  glands  may  be  found.  The  pericardial 
and  pleural  sacs  must  then  be  examined  for  they  are 
exposed,  and  their  contents  must  be  observed.  The 
heart  and  lungs  may  be  then  removed  en  masse.  Next, 
the  diaphragm  and  liver  may  be  separated  together  from 
the  surrounding  parts.  After  this  the  structures  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  neck  must  be  separated  from  their 
surroundings  and  examined,  but  left  in  position  until  we 
have  the  structures  of  the  fauces  ready  for  removal  with 
them.  This  is  accomplished  either  by  dissection  of  the 
skin  from  the  central  line  of  the  sub-maxillary  space,  and 
a  deep  incision  on  either  side  against  the  inner  surface  of 
the  lower  jaw,  whereby  the  tongue  is  freed  from  its 
attachments,  anteriorly  and  laterally,  and  can  be  drawn 
between  the  branches  of  the  lower  jaw,  or  by  removal  of 
the  skin  farther  up  the  side  of  the  face,  and  amputation 
of  half  of  the  inferior  maxilla  at  the  symphysis,  and  just 
below  the  condyle.  The  mouth,  pharynx,  posterior  nares, 
and  isthmus  faucium  may  thus  be  examined,  and  the 
temporo-hyoid  articulations  being  divided,  the  tongue, 
larynx,  and  pharynx  removed  with  the  trachea,  oesophagus. 


40  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

&c.  The  head  having  been  skinned  and  disarticulated  at 
the  occipital  condyles,  may  be  retained  for  examination  of 
the  brain,  eye,  nasal  chambers,  &c.,  secundum  artem. 
The  subsequent  examination  of  solid  organs,  variations  in 
size,  form,  and  structure  must  be  noted  and  deter- 
mined to  be  primary  or  secondary  causes  of  death.  The 
contents  of  hollow  viscera  must  be  retained  and  examined, 
and  the  capacity,  form,  and  structure  also  placed  on 
record.  Finally,  a  scientific  summary  of  post-mortem 
results,  with  conclusions  deduced  from  them,  should  be 
drawn  up  after  each  organ  or  tissue  exhibiting  disease 
has  been  specially  examined. 

Disease  may  assume  various  forms  dependent  upon  its 
method  of  appearance  and  the  manner  in  which  it  runs  its 
course.  Thus,  aciite  disorders  are  characterised  by  short 
periods  of  attack  and  rapid  morbid  changes  leading  to  death 
or  to  resolution  in  a  few  days,  whereas  chronic  cases  last 
for  some  time,  changes  occur  more  slowly  and  lead  to 
greater  permanent  alteration  of  structure.  Such  attacks 
as  are  active  in  their  phases,  but  chronic  in  their  effects, 
are  termed  Subacute.  Different  diseases  generally  affect 
one  or  other  of  these  characters.  Certain  blood  diseases 
are  very  liable  to  assume  the  chronic  form,  rheumatism, 
for  instance,  while  inflammations  of  important  viscera,  as 
the  lungs,  heart,  &c.,  are  generally  acute.  When 
a  number  of  animals  of  the  same  species  become 
simultaneously  affected  with  a  disease  which  does  not 
seem  to  be  confined  to  any  special  locality  the  outbreak 
is  said  to  be  Epizootic,  but  if  animals  of  various  species 
suffer  from  the  disorder  it  is  termed  Panzootic.  Enzootics 
are  those  diseases  which  affect  a  number  of  animals  in  a 
circumscribed  locality.  Thus,  eczema  epizootica  is  a 
panzootic,  pleuro-pneumonia  zymotica  is  an  epizootic,  and 
anthrax  generally  manifests  itself  in  enzootic  outbreaks. 
The  term  Sporadic  is  applied  to  those  disorders  which  do 
not  affect  a  number  of  animals  simultaneously,  but  now 
and  then  an  individual  becomes  attacked,  while  a  number 
of  others  subjected  to  like  conditions  escape  unharmed. 
Most  non-specific  disorders  assume  the  sporadic  character. 


INTRODUCTION.  41 

Having  determined  the  nature  of  the  attack  under  which 
an  animal  is  labouring,  and  by  the  various  methods  of 
inquiry  above  noted,  in  so  far  as  they  are  applicable  to 
the  special  case,  having  arrived  at  a  conclusion  as  to  the 
part  disordered,  and  the  extent  to  which  it  has  undergone 
pathological  changes,  and  to  which  its  altered  conditions 
affect  surrounding  parts,  the  practitioner  must  next 
determine  the  method  of  treatment  to  be  adopted  and 
rigidly  enforced  with  a  view  to  restoration  of  health,  or 
to  a  condition  of  fitness  for  special  duties  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  patient.  It  has  been  truly  remarked  that 
in  many  cases  a  veterinary  surgeon  has  not  the  oppor- 
tunity to  carry  his  medicinal  skill  to  its  full  extent  since 
his  patients  are  almost  always  viewed  as  representing  so 
much  capital,  and  not  as  being  in  a  position  to  claim 
moral  protection  for  life  so  long  as  it  exists.  Again,  in 
the  majority  of  cases  the  veterinary  surgeon  must 
thoroughly  cure  his  patient,  and  may  find  a  ^'  patched  up  '' 
case  which  would  bring  his  medical  confrere  much  credit, 
is  apt  to  prove  even  prejudicial  to  him.  Such  being  the 
case,  it  can  hardly  be  a  matter  of  wonder  that  the  study 
of  the  treatment  of  such  animals  as  our  bovine  patients 
has  not  been  pursued  with  such  energy  as  certain  other 
branches  of  therapeutics.  The  animal  if  slaughtered  at 
once  will  prove  useful  for  food,  if  kept  alive  will  probably 
have  its  system  impregnated  with  medicinal  agents,  and 
at  the  same  time  will  rapidly  decline  from  "  market  con- 
dition.^^ The  veterinary  surgeon's  bill  and  the  keep  of  the 
animal  until  it  is  again  fit  for  its  special  duties  will 
mount  up  very  considerably,  so  the  owner  is  too  often 
tempted  to  send  the  patient  immediately  to  the  butcher. 
Promptness  is  most  essential,  then,  in  the  treatment  of 
our  patients,  both  in  prognosis  and  in  administration  of 
remedies.  In  all  cases  we  must  remember  the  grand  rule 
"  reniove  the  cause  and  the  effect  will  cease,"  and  must 
not  only  remove  the  immediate  cause,  but  any  other 
influences  which  are  tending  to  bring  about  increase  of 
the  disorder.  We  must  thoroughly  trace  out  the  value  of 
each  pathological  condition   in    relation  to   other  morbid 


42  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

states,  and  the  primary  disease  must  in  all  cases  determine 
the  course  of  our  therapeutical  efforts. 

All  secondary  diseases,  symptoms  of  which  show  that 
they  are  liable  to  destroy  the  patient,  must  also  receive 
attention ;  thus,  in  a  case  of  indigestion  we  often  require  to 
prevent  death  from  suffocation  when  distension  of  the 
rumen  with  gas  impedes  movements  of  the  diaphragm, 
evacuation  of  the  gas  is  then  urgent  and  must  be  adopted 
as  a  palliative  measure,  together  with  the  curative  means 
directed  to  reduction  of  the  indigestion.  Curative  means 
may  be  either  medicinal  or  surgical.  Medicinal  agents  of 
various  kinds  have  been  found  to  have  different  effects 
upon  the  animal  system  since  they  increase,  retard,  or 
prevent  natural  processes.  A  judicious  selection  of  these 
agents  may  be  made  to  assist  nature  in  her  attempts  to 
restore  healthy  conditions ;  in  all  cases  the  educated  prac- 
titioner must  apply  his  knowledge  of  the  action  of  special 
medicaments  and  of  the  methods  which  nature  adopts  as 
reparative.  Thus,  with  a  wound  of  a  sluggish  character, 
he  will  endeavour  to  promote  salutary  inflammation  by 
means  of  digestives,  and  in  a  case  of  haemorrhage,  he  will 
endeavour  to  coagulate  the  fibrine  of  the  blood  and  so 
plug  up  the  orifice  of  escape.  Treatment  must  be  of  no 
definite  and  fixed  character,  nostrums  and  recipes  occupy 
too  prominent  a  position  in  works  on  cattle  diseases ;  the 
educated  practitioner  alone  should  treat  the  case,  and  he 
will  be  able  to  vary  the  doses  and  agents  administered 
according  to  the  many  and  ever  variable  phases  of  diseased 
action. 

Human  medicine  has  been  facetiously  termed  ^^  the  art 
of  amusing  the  patient  while  nature  cures  the  disease.^' 
All  medicinal  treatment  consists  in  a  state  of  constant 
vigilance  and  free  supply  of  air  whenever  the  vis  medicatrix 
natures  requires  us  to  restore  health  equilibrium. 

Surgical  Treatment  comprises  all  operations  performed 
upon  the  various  parts  of  the  body  with  a  view  to 
restoring  the  natural  condition  of  the  constitution  or  a 
satisfactory  state  of  health.  Many  refinements  which  have 
been    adopted  in  human  surgery  and  so  materially  allevi- 


INTRODUCTION.  43 

ate  suffering  and  prolong  life,  have  not  been  able 
hitherto  to  find  a  place  in  veterinary  surgery.  For  want 
of  co-operation  on  the  part  of  the  patient  and  his  slight 
pecuniary  value  if  imperfectly  restored,  and  the  expense  of 
keep,  prove  sad  opponents  of  our  advancement  in  this 
respect.  Thus  the  medical  and  surgical  branches  of 
professional  work  have  not  been  artificially  delegated  to 
distinct  sections  of  practitioners,  and  as  they  depend  on 
the  same  laws  of  disease,  and  are  at  every  phase  in 
close  interunion,  we  have  not  deemed  it  right  to  separate 
surgery  from  medicine  in  the  work  before  us.  Surgical 
treatment  comprises  operations,  the  use  of  appliances,  and 
dressings  of  various  kinds. 

Operations  may  be  performed  with  special  instruments  or 
by  manipulatory  methods ;  they  have  for  their  aim  either 
removal  of  the  cause  of  disorder  as  in  oesophagotomy,  or 
palliation  of  its  effects,  as  opening  the  trachea  in  a  case 
of  laryngeal  obstruction.  Again,  they  may  have  a  pre- 
ventive effect,  as  in  removal  of  a  tumour  which  by  its 
spread  tends  to  involve  important  organs,  and  ovariotomy 
in  an  animal  with  some  mechanical  impediment,  to  expul- 
sion of  a  foetus.  Operative  surgical  skill  may,  to  a  certain 
extent,  be  acquired  in  the  dissecting-room  by  the  study  of 
topographical  or  regional  anatomy,  but  can  only  be  per- 
fected by  operations  on  the  living  subject,  preferably  in 
the  course  of  general  practice;  though  some  educational 
authorities  consider  that  the  pain  inflicted  on  a  few  animals 
during  a  course  of  operative  vivisectional  surgery,  will  be 
amply  atoned  for  by  subsequent  more  skilful  execution  of 
professional  duties.  In  the  performance  of  any  operation 
the  practitioner  must  have  determined  beforehand  the 
most  favorable  methods  for  the  particular  case,  the  com- 
plications liable  to  arise,  and  the  measures  of  after  treat- 
ment which  will  be  necessary  if  everything  succeeds 
according  to  his  expectations.  It  is  in  the  occurrence  of 
complications  that  the  skill  of  the  operator  is  best  tested ; 
coolness,  promptness  in  emergency,  and  neglect  of  sur- 
roundings, are  valuable  qualities  under  these  circumstances. 
With  large  patients  special  means  of  restraint  during  all 


44  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

major  operations  have  to  be  resorted  to  by  the  veterinary 
surgeon.  The  animal  requires  to  be  cast  or  otherwise  to 
be  disarmed  of  defensive  powers  and  ability  to  escape. 

Anesthetics  have  not  been  hitherto  used  much  in 
veterinary  surgery.  They  are  not  so  frequently  required 
as  in  human  surgery  because  major  operations  on  animals 
are  less  frequent,  and  also  because  the  amount  of  nervous 
wear  and  tear  in  the  lower  animals  is  not  so  great  as  in 
man,  with  his  extremely  elaborate  and  delicate  nervous 
mechanism.  The  pain  of  anticipation,  also,  in  animals, 
is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Chloeoeoem  requires  to  be 
administered  in  very  large  quantity  to  large  herbivores, 
and  seems  to  so  thoroughly  impregnate  the  blood  as 
to  interfere  with  subsequent  healing  processes  and  to 
give  rise  to  serious  complications.  This  agent  proves 
more  expensive  than  the  owner  of  the  patient  generally 
likes,  and  the  preliminary  stage  of  excitement  produced 
by  it  induces  severe  struggling  and  reduction  of  the 
strength  of  the  patient.  Local  anaesthesia  as  induced  by 
Dr.  Eichardson's  spray  diffuser,  has  been  used  for  certain 
veterinary  operations ;  cold  water  is  sometimes  continuously 
applied  to  produce  this  effect. 


Fio.  5. — Spray  diffuser  for  anaesthetics  or  disinfectants. 

The  preliminary  treatment  of  a  patient  must  be  such  as 
will  induce  as  vigorous  a  state  of  the  constitution  as  is 
compatible  with  the  circumstances.  Food  of  good  quality 
and  wholesome,  a  free  supply  of  air,  and  exercise,  should 
be  adopted  when  possible.     Operations  should  not  be  per- 


INTRODUCTION.  45 

formed  when  certain  blood  diseases  are  present,  and 
organic  disease  of  various  organs,  together  with  the 
special  conditions  of  the  patient,  should  be  most  carefully 
considered. 

Professor  Williams  is  careful  to  caution  us  lest  we 
operate  with  dirty  instruments  or  hands  or  near  a  dissect- 
ing room.  The  operation  should  be  performed  in  a  place 
where  there  is  lots  of  room,  light  and  quietude.  The 
subject  should  be  placed  in  position  by  skilled  assistants, 
and  the  necessary  instruments  and  appliances  should  be 
clean,  in  order,  and  placed  under  the  charge  of  a  special 
assistant.  Thoroughness,  cleanliness,  and  judgment  should 
be  the  features  of  all  operations.  Emergencies  as  they 
arise  must  be  met  and  counteracted.  Ha3morrhage,  pro- 
trusion of  viscera,  and  collapse  of  the  patient,  are  some  of 
the  most  formidable. 

Collapse  consists  in  sudden  interference  with  the  heart's 
action,  the  result  of  nervous  shock.  The  patient  ceases  to 
struggle,  and  loses  all  voluntary  power,  the  limbs  are 
relaxed,  the  pulse  scarcely  perceptible  and  extremely 
irregular,  sighing,  palor  of  visible  mucous  membranes,  and 
coldness  of  the  body  are  present  in  most  cases. 

In  this  state  of  affairs  a  free  supply  of  fresh  air  must 
be  secured,  and  sometimes  artificial  respiration  resorted  to. 
Stimulants  must  be  administered  and  frictions  applied  to 
the  extremities  and  general  surface.  Extreme  quiet  and 
stimulant  tonics  must  constitute  the  after-treatment. 
When  death  occurs  from  this  cause,  the  blood  is  found 
diminished  in  consistency  and  occupying  all  the  cavities 
of  the  heart,  the  right  especially  being  engorged. 

In  all  cases  after  a  serious  operation  the  patient  should 
be  kept  in  a  well- ventilated  house,  and  supplied  with  good 
and  not  over  nutritious  diet,  the  necessity  for  stimulant 
and  tonic  agents  being  estimated  in  accordance  with  the 
case. 

The  various  forms  of  appliances  and  dressings  will  re- 
quire special  notice.  An  important  rule  to  be  observed  in 
operative  surgery  is  to  preserve  every  portion  of  structure 
which  can  become  useful,  while  removing  all  diseased  parts 


46  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

with  an  unsparing  hand.  This  is  the  grand  doctrine  of 
"  Conservative  Surgery/^ 

Finally,  we  must  impress  upon  our  minds  the  extreme 
value  of  Nursing  and  Prevention. 

Nursing  consists  in  attention  to  minor  details  which 
are  conducive  to  the  comfort  of  the  patient.  Supply 
of  tempting  and  palatable  food,  and  water  or  other  drinks, 
as  suited  to  the  state  of  the  patient ;  free  supply  of  fresh  air 
of  an  agreeable  temperature,  prompt  removal  of  ejecta,  and 
the  supply  of  a  good  clean  bed  of  straw,  clothing  properly  and 
with  judgment,  administration  of  medicines  in  the  gentlest 
and  most  effectual  manner,  and  application  of  dressings  of 
various  kinds,  also  constitute  the  duties  of  the  nurse. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  very  frequently  these  simple 
matters  prove  more  valuable  than  more  active  treatment,  the 
necessity  for  good  nursing  in  all  cases  will  be  evident. 

Prevention  or  Prophylaxis  is  a  most  important  question. 
We  have  seen  that  conditions  are  rather  unfavorable  to 
curative  treatment,  but  prevention  is  correspondingly 
valuable.  Veterinary  surgeons  are  called  in  to  prevent 
disorders  of  any  kind  among  a  herd  of  cattle,  or  to  adopt 
special  prophylactic  means  against  such  a  disorder  as 
anthrax.  In  each  case  he  must  carefully  adopt  hygienic 
measures  with  a  view  to  avoidance  of  predisposing  causes. 
When  exciting  influences  occur  they  will  then  be  less  able 
to  produce  marked  effects.  The  quality  and  quantity  of 
the  food  must  be  duly  regulated  ;  the  purity  and  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  and  the  sanitary  conditions  of  stalls,  houses, 
&c.,  as  well  as  the  general  treatment  of  the  beast,  must 
be  adapted  to  the  object  for  which  they  have  been  kept. 
Such  individual  predispositions  as  result  from  age,  con- 
formation, breed,  and  temperament,  must  as  much  as 
possible  be  obviated  ;  and,  lastly,  all  exciting  causes,  such 
as  standing  in  draughts  and  sudden  transitions  from  heat 
to  cold  must  be  guarded  against.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  by  such  means  latent  tendency  to  tubercle  and  other 
similar  affections  can  be  restrained  for  a  considerable 
time.  The  effect  of  disease  of  parents  may  be  manifest 
at  birth  when  it  is  termed  Congenital,  or  it  may  remain 


INTRODUCTION.  47 

ill  a  latent  state  until  tlie  young  animal  has  attained  a 
definite  age  corresponding  often  with  that  in  which  it 
first  appeared  in  the  parent.  For  the  prevention  of  out- 
breaks of  special  disorders  various  means  are  adopted. 

Inoculation  depends  for  its  value  upon  the  fact  that 
some  diseases  do  not  occur  twice  in  the  same  subject^  and 
when  artificially  induced  have  a  mild  character. 

Vaccination  consists  in  securing  immunity  from  a 
severe  disorder  by  bringing  on  an  attack  of  a  closely 
allied  but  very  mild  disease. 

Special  Breeding  consists  in  the  crossing  of  animals  of 
a  breed  predisposed  to  a  disorder  with  animals  of  a  breed 
manifesting  no  such  tendency,  as  in  crossing  shorthorns 
with  less  carefully  bred  animals. 

Special  legislative  measures,  with  which  we  shall  after- 
wards have  to  deal,  are  necessary  to  check  contagious 
disorders. 

The  treatment  of  inflammation  is  complicated  in  accord- 
ance with  the  complex  conditions  of  that  pathological 
state,  and  the  effects  of  these  processes.  We  ujust 
remember  that  inflammation  is  in  very  many  cases  salutary 
and  that  it  must  therefore  be  encouraged  under  the 
following  circumstances  ;  when  reparative,  constructive,  or 
usefully  destructive.  Reparative  inflammation  is  the 
means  by  which  injuries  are  repaired,  and  when  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  new  tissue  has  to  be  produced,  as  in 
filling  up  an  abscess  cavity,  constructive  inflammation 
causes  granulative  repair.  In  the  removal  of  foreign  bodies, 
whether  introduced  from  without  or  resulting,  from  death 
of  a  part,  as  in  sloughing,  inflammation  is  usefully  des- 
tructive. Inflammation  under  these  circumstances  must 
be  carefully  watched,  and  either  promoted  or  controlled 
as  occasion  may  require.  If  the  process  becomes  sluggish, 
as  in  indolent  ulcers,  on  account  of  deficiency  either  of 
local  or  constitutional  energy,  stimulants  must  be  applied 
or  administered ;  while  if  the  local  changes  are  intensely 
acute  and  give  rise  to  a  high  state  of  fever  sedative 
means  must  be  adopted  locally,  and  general  sedatives 
and    antiphlogistics    be    used.      At    the    same   time    the 


48  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

cause  of  excess  or  deficiency  must  be  sought  for  and 
removed.  In  salutary  destructive  changes  where  a 
foreigQ  body  becomes  the  centre  of  an  abscess,  whenever 
necessary  the  tendency  of  the  abscess  to  pass  in  the 
direction  of  least  pressure  must  be  directed  by  relaxing 
superficial  parts  by  moisture  and  warmth,  also  any  impe- 
diment to  such  progress  towards  the  surface,  as  layers  of 
fascia,  must  be  overcome  by  operation.  Our  anatomical 
knowledge  will  guide  us  in  this  matter.  Local  energy 
must  be  promoted  in  cases  of  removal  of  gangrenous 
parts  by  sloughing,  and  when  the  general  or  local  powers 
begin  to  flag  they  must  be  assisted  by  surgical  removal 
of  the  altered  mass.  The  circumstances  of  each  case  will 
suggest  to  the  practitioner  the  proper  time  for  operation, 
and  when  there  is  inability  to  produce  a  "  line  of  demar- 
cation,^^ removal  must  be  made  where  the  tissues  retain 
vital  energy  sufl&cient  for  repair.  When  it  is  necessary  to 
treat  inflammation  of  a  non-salutary  character  the  original 
cause  of  the  disorder  must  be  first  removed.  Thus,  a 
foreign  body  in  the  muscular  structures  of  a  part,  resting 
on  the  conjunctiva,  or  situated  in  a  passage  too  small 
to  accommodate  it  under  ordinary  circumstances,  if  not 
removed  artificially  will  be  thrown  off  if  possible  by 
exacting  processes  of  nature,  or  death  will  result  from  the 
attempt.  Occasionally  a  coating  of  lymph  will  be  thrown 
out  over  a  foreign  body,  and  thus  its  irritating  characters 
obviated.  Next,  all  causes  which  tend  to  produce  similar 
inflammation  must  be  removed,  for  they  simply  aggravate 
the  case  in  hand.  Thus,  in  inflammation  of  the  peritoneum 
quiescence  of  the  bowels  is  to  be  sought,  for  active  peris- 
talsis, such  as  results  from  cathartics,  causes  friction  between 
the  inflamed  surfaces.  As  activity  predisposes  to  disorder, 
both  directly  and  by  influencing  blood  supply,  we  must 
secure  Kest  whenever  possible ;  thus  we  keep  the  animal 
in  a  dark  place  in  cases  of  ophthalmia,  and  endeavour  to 
promote  the  action  of  other  excretory  organs  in  cases  of 
inflammation  of  the  kidneys,  to  relieve  the  diseased  glands. 
There  is  a  natural  tendency  to  this  which  we  must 
endeavour   to   promote.      The  substitution  of    the  action 


INTRODUCTION.  49 

of  one  excretory  organ  for  that  of  another  is  vicarious 
activity.  Agents  which,  when  administered  internally, 
counteract  inflammation,  are  termed  antiphlogistics. 
Many  of  them  act  by  promoting  vicarious  secretion, 
whereby  the  blood  is  purified;  also  in  doing  so  they  act 
as  derivatives.  There  is  a  marked  determination  of  blood 
towards  a  part  suffering  from  inflammation,  and  a  corre- 
spondingly diminished  supply  to  other  parts  of  the  body. 
Our  efforts  must  be  directed  to  the  diffusion  of  nervous 
energy  which  controls  vaso- motor  activity,  so  we  resort 
to  general  stimulants,  clothing,  hand  rubbing  of  limbs, 
and  stimulating  applications  to  the  surface.  It  has  been 
long  recognised  that  when  blisters  applied  to  the  surface 
of  the  body  during  internal  acute  inflammation  act  freely 
it  is  a  favorable  sign.  We  must  look  upon  it  as  a  proof 
of  diffusion  of  nervous  energy  and  blood  which  previously 
had  been  accumulated  in  the  affected  part.  Derivatives 
assist  in  the  process  of  diffusion.  The  excess  of  blood  is 
removed  from  the  zone  of  congestion  and  simple  hyperaemia 
around  the  part  where  stasis  has  occurred,  and  thus  the 
disease  limited  in  its  extent.  The  same  effect  results 
from  certain  modifications  injposture,  and  from  bloodletting. 
Certain  agents  have  been  extolled  as  especially  efficacious 
in  cases  of  severe  inflammation,  either  by  producing 
changes  in  the  blood  or  by  their  action  upon  the  heart. 

Mercuky,  as  calomel,  acts  on  numerous  secretory  organs, 
and  is  correspondingly  valuable  as  a  means  of  purifica- 
tion of  blood  which  is  over-loaded  with  inflammatory 
debris ;  also  it  is  considered  to  check  or  prevent  plastic 
deposit.  It  is  a  debilitating  agent  of  a  very  powerful 
kind,  and  so  is  often  contra-indicated. 

PoTASsio- TARTRATE  OF  ANTIMONY  is  Considered  valuable 
in  reducing  the  hearths  action  as  does  bleeding,  but  having 
the  advantage  of  it  being  permissible  to  administer  it 
several  consecutive  times. 

Digitalis  also  controls  the  heart's  action,  but  it  is  cumu- 
lative, and  thus  requires  very  careful  watching.  It  pro- 
duces intermittency  of  the  heart. 

Opium    is  valuable  "  in  various  ways ;   by  quieting  the 

4 


50  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

nerves,  by  sustaining  the  falteri'ng  action  of  the  heart,  by 
keeping  the  inflamed  parts  at  rest ''  (Watson). 

In  nursing  a  patient  suffering  from  severe  inflammation 
we  must  select  such  food  as  is  very  easy  of  digestion,  and 
therefore  not  likely  to  aggravate  the  disordered  condition 
which  the  stomach  shares  with  other  organs  of  the  body 
in  such  cases.  The  appetite  of  the  patient  must  be 
tempted,  for  it  is  generally  difficult  to  make  him  take 
anything  which  will  assist  in  husbanding  the  strength 
against  the  emergencies  of  the  attack.  Some  practitioners 
rely  almost  wholly  on  stimulants  in  the  treatment  of  in- 
flammation ;  these,  they  urge,  foster  the  strength,  and 
hasten  the  local  changes  to  a  favorable  issue,  while  they 
prevent  all  those  unsatisfactory  effects,  such  as  ulceration 
and  gangrene,  of  deficient  local  power  which  are  apt  to 
result  from  the  depletory  system  of  treatment ;  they  also 
prevent  the  attack  from  lapsing  into  a  chronic  character. 
There  certainly  is  much  feasibility  in  this  line  of  argu- 
ment, and  the  benefit  of  the  system  is  proved  by  the  un- 
doubted fact  that  under  it  cases  of  true  hydrothorax  less 
often  result  from  pleurisy.  But  we  must  exercise  judgment 
and  discriminate  when  we  can  afford  to  run  the  risk  of 
plastic  results  of  an  acute  attack,  and  when  haste  is  less 
essential  than  thorough  ultimate  recovery.  In  all  cases 
where  vital  organs  are  inflamed  stimulating  treatment  is 
likely  to  be  of  value.  With  regard  to  local  conditions, 
too,  sometimes  stimulation  is  beneficial.  This  is  well 
shown  in  many  cases  of  so-called  counter-irritation,  as  in 
application  of  vesicants  to  the  sides  in  cases  of  pleuritis. 
Undoubtedly  many  cases  of  supposed  inflammation,  are  at 
first  simply  congestion,  and  nowhere  does  this  more  often 
occur  than  in  the  pleura ;  the  stimulus  arouses  the  activity 
of  the  congested  blood-vessels,  and  enables  them  to  expel 
their  contents,  and  thus  immediate  relief  follows.  Again, 
undoubtedly  deficient  nervous  energy  in  a  part  is  a  potent 
cause  of  inflammation ;  stimulation  removes  this  cause. 
It  is  even  possible  that  when  stasis  has  occurred  a  sti- 
mulus may  so  strengthen  the  blood-current  as  to  enable 
it  to  break  down   the  obstruction,  and  so   alter  the   local 


INTEODUCTION.  51 

states  of  nutrition  as  to  give  no  tendency  to  renew  it. 
But  while  admitting  this  mode  of  action  of  external 
stimulants,  we  cannot  refuse  to  admit  the  derivative  effect 

of    COUNTER-IEEITANTS. 

Kecent  researches  on  the  vaso-motor  system  have 
proved  how  powerful  an  effect  a  stimulus  may  have  in 
altering  blood- distribution.  These  researches,  though  by 
no  means  complete,  are  favorable  to  the  view  that  a 
deep-seated  inflammation  may  be  relieved  by  originating 
a  similar  process  in  superficial  tissues.  Setons,  blisters, 
cauteries,  and  rubefacients  are  means  to  this  end. 

Cold,  when  applied  locally  in  a  continuous  manner  for 
a  long  time,  will,  in  such  cases  as  open  joints  and  similar 
pathological  states,  enable  repair  to  occur  with  a  minimum 
of  inflammation,  for  such,  if  it  set  in  to  a  marked  degree, 
would  cause  high  fever  on  account  of  the  unyielding  nature 
of  surrounding  parts.  Also  under  this  treatment  the  in- 
flammation is  not  so  liable  to  involve  the  joint  surfaces. 
This  continuous  application  numbs  the  parts,  and  so  lessens 
pain ;  but  some  say  that  ultimately  the  white  muscular 
fibre  of  the  arteries  relaxes,  and  passive  congestion  occurs. 
However  this  may  be,  its  practical  value  in  joint  diseases 
has  been  proved. 

Heat  with  Moistuee  relaxes  parts,  and  so  eases  pain,  it 
also  tends  to  promote  suppuration.  It  must  be  used, 
therefore,  to  assist  the  maturation  of  abscesses,  but  should 
be  avoided  whenever  suppuration  would  be  prejudicial.  In 
the  earliest  stages  of  inflammation  resolution  may  be 
brought  about  by  warmth,  mechanically  relaxing  the 
vessels  in  which  stasis  has  occurred,  and  thus  readmitting 
the  current  of  blood,  or  the  same  effect  may  be  the  result 
of  extravasation. 

Local  Sedatives,  as  Goulard's  solution  of  the  subacetate 
of  lead,  check  the  spread  of  inflammation  by  lessening  the 
passive  congestion  around  the  seat  of  stasis  ;  they  are  very 
useful  in  cases  of  ophthalmia,  contusions,  &c. 

Local  Blood-letting  must  never  be  brought  about  by 
incisions  in  the  inflamed  part,  but  rather  in  the  proximity. 
It  seems  to  temporarily  relieve  congestion  and  hyperaemia^ 


52  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

but  the  effect  is  evanescent.  Occasionally  free  scarifica- 
tions allow  the  escape  of  excessive  extravasated  material, 
which,  by  pressure,  tends  to  interfere  with  favorable  pro- 
gress towards  resolution.  For  the  removal  of  effused 
material  pressure  and  stimulation  have  been  found  beneficial. 
The  effects  of  pressure  are  very  gradual,  and  some  mechani- 
cal appliance  is  necessary;  the  more  convenient  planof  stimu- 
lation is,  therefore,  generally  adopted,  compounds  of  iodine, 
especially  the  biniodide  of  mercury,  being  most  useful.  The 
friction  in  application  also  tends  to  promote  absorption. 

When  ulceration  is  present  the  treatment  must  be 
regulated  according  to  the  condition  of  the  sores.  Often 
tonics  and  stimulants  must  be  administered  internally. 
Indolent  ulcers  require  local  stimulation ;  callous,  the 
application  of  caustics,  whereby  a  fresh  granulative  surface 
will  be  exposed ;  inflamed,  local  sedatives ;  inflammatory 
and  specific,  attention  to  constitutional  conditions ;  phage- 
denic, powerful  caustics,  followed  by  poultices. 

When  SuppuEATiON  has  occurred,  free  exit  must  be  given 
to  the  pus  by  means  of  a  depending  orifice,  but  the  abscess 
must  not  be  opened  until  fully  matured.  Purulent  infil- 
trations should  be  relieved  by  incision.  The  system  must 
be  well  supported  by  nourishing  food  and  stimulant  tonics 
in  the  meanwhile,  and  the  animal  be  clothed  carefully,  for 
suppuration  is  an  exhausting  process,  and  causes  febrile 
symptoms,  rigors,  debility,  and  fulness  and  rapidity  of  the 
pulse.  Tonics  will  be  favorable  to  the  constructive  pro- 
cesses by  which  the  abscess  cavity  will  be  filled  up ; 
locally,  carbolic  dressings  are  most  useful. 

MoETiPiCATiON  necessitates  support  of  the  strength  of 
the  patient,  for  not  only  is  the  system  severely  taxed  in 
throwing  off  the  slough,  but  also  gangrenous  fluids  tend 
to  enter  the  circulating  current,  and  give  rise  to  an  asthenic 
character  of  subsequent  changes.  Stimulants  and  tonics 
require  to  be  administered  freely  internally,  while  poul- 
tices such  as  Cataplasma  Calcis  Chlor.,  or  Catap.  Fermenti, 
promote  the  separation  of  the  slough.  We  have  already 
indicated  that  surgical  removal  of  the  diseased  part  is 
often  necessary. 


INTRODUCTION.  53 

It  remains  only  for  us  here  to  state  that  febrile  com- 
plications of  inflammation  will  be  subsequently  noticed, 
and  that  inflammation  is  sometimes  induced  as  a  prophy- 
lactic means^  as  when  a  seton  is  inserted  in  the  dewlap  of 
young  cattle  as  a  preventive  against  "black  quarter." 

Congestion  requires  treatment  directed  to  the  removal 
of  causes,  such  as  relaxation  of  arteries  or  impediment 
to  return  of  blood  through  veins.  Often  a  local  stimulant 
will  remove  any  tendency  to  stagnation,  while  astringents, 
such  as  cold  water,  will  cause  tonic  contraction  of  the 
previously  passively-relaxed  vessels.  When  the  conges- 
tion is  due  to  weakness  of  constitution,  tonics  must  be 
prescribed.  Often  it  is  necessary  to  palliate  the  accumu- 
lation of  blood  by  scarifications,  phlebotomy,  or  applica- 
tion of  equable  pressure  to  the  part.  An  elevated  posture 
will  prove  beneficial.  Moisture  with  warmth  may  lead 
to  removal  of  congestion  by  causing  the  vessels  to  relieve 
themselves  by  serous  effusion. 

H/^MOREHAGE,  when  traumatic,  must  be  treated  as  here- 
after described.  When  due  to  blood  disease,  and  occur- 
ring as  petechias  and  haemorrhagic  infarctions,  they  must 
be  deemed  of  minor  importance  as  secondary  to  the 
general  disorder  of  the  blood.  The  other  form  of  passive 
haemorrhage,  that  due  to  debility,  must  be  treated  by 
strengthening  the  patient ;  and  in  active  haemorrhage  we 
must  reduce  plethora  and  tendency  to  congestions  by  less 
food  and  more  exercise,  and  also  laxative  and  diuretic 
agents.  Local  astringent  applications,  as  cold  water,  act 
as  styptics,  restraining  haemorrhage.  Certain  medicinal 
substances,  when  administered  internally,  are  considered 
haemostatic,  as  oleum  terebinthinae. 

Dropsy  will  disappear  with  the  congestive  or  inflam- 
matory state  from  which  it  originated.  The  process  may 
be  promoted  by  stimulating  the  water  excreting  organs, 
kidneys,  and  skin ;  also  such  agents  as  lessen  blood 
pressure  promote  absorption;  digitalis  is  one  of  the 
best.  If  the  supply  of  fluid  for  drinking  purposes  be 
limited,  effused  fluids  will  be  taken  up  to  maintain  the 
due  liquidity  of  the  blood.      Iodine  and  its  compounds  are 


54  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

supposed  to  assist  the  process  of  absorption  in  these  cases. 
When  absorption  is  prevented  by  lympby  deposits  on  the 
walls  of  a  sac,  or  when  the  fluid  has  collected  in  such 
quantity  as  to  cause  extreme  tension,  paracentesis  (or 
tapping)  must  be  resorted  to.  Injection  of  a  stimulating 
agent  may  close  a  serous  abscess  by  lymph  exudation. 
This  is,  of  course,  inadmissible  in  dropsies  of  serous 
cavities.      Senile  dropsy  is  generally  incurable. 

Section  2. 

The  ox.  Bos  Taurus,  is  a  ruminating,  hoofed  mammal, 
and  presents  certain  leading  anatomical  and  physiological 
characteristics  which  leave  their  impress  upon  his  patho- 
logical conditions.  Thus  the  alimentary  system  is  remark- 
ably well  developed,  constituting  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  the  total  weight  of  the  body.  It  is  largely  composed 
of  stomachs,  which  fill  the  greater  part  of  the  abdomen  and 
consist  mainly  of  three  compartments,  modified  forms  of 
the  inferior  extremity  of  the  oesophagus,  adapted  for  pur- 
poses of  rumination.  The  fibres  of  the  tubular  portion  of 
the  oesophagus  are  arranged  in  such  a  manner  as  to  readily 
permit  either  upward  or  downward  passage  of  the  food, 
and  the  organs  of  mastication  and  salivation  are  specially 
adapted  for  prolonged  action. 

As  in  other  herbivorous  mammals,  the  molar  teeth  are 
large  grinding  organs,  which,  by  the  size  of  the  fangs 
firmly  implanting  them  in  the  jaw,  necessitate  a  large 
condition  of  the  face  in  comparison  with  the  cranium  ; 
and  by  their  weight  so  increase  that  of  the  head  that  the 
neck  is  short  and  presents  superiorly  a  highly  developed 
ligamentum  nuchaQ.  The  weight  of  the  skull  is  also  in- 
creased by  offensive  organs,  the  horns,  developed  from  the 
fontal  bones  at  the  superior  prominence  of  the  skull. 
But  the  weight  of  these  is  lessened  by  the  fact  that  into 
them  extend  prolongations  of  those  large  facial  sinuses 
which  contain  rarefied  air,  and  buoy  up  the  unsupported 
skulls  of  most  mammals,  as  the  air  sinuses  in  the  bones  of 
birds  also  buoy  up  their  bodies  in  adapting  them  for  rising 


INTRODUCTION.  55 

in  the  air  during  flight.  As  in  other  ruminants  incisors  are 
deficient  in  the  upper  jaw_,  being  there  replaced  by  a  dental 
pad,  and  in  the  inferior  maxilla  the  canines  assume  the 
figure  of  incisors  and  form  part  of  a  continuous  series  of 
eight. 

The  anterior  extremities  of  the  nasal  and  oral  chambers 
are  connected  together  by  a  duct  of  Stenson,  leading  to 
the  organ  of  Jacobson,  an  accessory  olfactory  appa- 
ratus, in  all  probability  closely  connected  with  the  mouth 
that  the  sense  of  smell  may  exercise  more  direct  control 
against  ingestion  of  poisonous  herbs.  The  upper  lip  and 
the  anterior  nares  are  occupied  by  the  muffle,  a  fibrous 
organ  covered  with  a  delicate  but  firm  membrane  devoid 
of  hair,  but  constantly,  in  health,  secreting  a  dewy  moisture, 
and  kept  clean  by  the  tongue,  an  organ  developed  to  a 
remarkable  extent  for  prehensile  purposes.  The  eyes  are 
prominent  and  rather  far  back  as  in  other  herbivores, 
whereby  extensive  range  of  vision  enables  the  animal  to 
view  an  enemy  afar  and  not  be  disturbed  suddenly  during 
the  prolonged  period  of  rumination.  This  act  is  performed 
by  the  animal  in  the  recumbent  position,  the  rumen  is  full 
and  presses  against  the  diaphragm. 

The  thorax,  under  any  circumstances,  is  not  remarkable 
for  extent,  but  has  special  provisions  whereby  it  may  in- 
crease in  transverse  diameter  when  the  animal  is  lying 
down.  Besides  the  shortness  of  the  thorax  of  the  ox  and 
other  ruminants  as  compared  with  that  of  the  horse  and 
his  allies,  the  lungs  are  more  largely  composed  of  areolar 
tissue,  the  calibre  of  the  trachea  is  less,  and  the  anterior 
nares  are  smaller  and  less  mobile,  and  devoid  of  that 
remarkable  complexity  of  formation  which  assists  in 
adapting  the  horse  for  rapid  movement  over  the  earth. 
Altogether  the  respiratory  system  is  less  developed  than 
in  the  horse. 

In  accordance  with  this  the  circulatory  system  is  less 
developed,  the  arteries  being  small  and  the  heart  generally 
more  frequent  but  less  powerful  in  its  action,  so  that  the 
pulse  has  a  somewhat  soft  beat.  The  blood  does  not  ex- 
hibit  that  tendency  to   the   formation  of    the   buffy  coat 


66  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

which  that  of  the  horse  does  under  normal  conditions, 
though  the  corpuscles  are  about  equal  in  size. 

The  nervous  system  has  a  rather  small  cerebrum,  due 
especially  to  deficiency  in  size  of  the  anterior  parts  of  the 
hemispheres;  these  also  are  remarkably  short  in  the  ox. 
The  spinal  cord  is  fairly  developed,  and  the  ganglionic 
system  large  and  energetic.  The  organs  of  the  senses  are 
all  well  developed,  the  skin  is  thick  and  somewhat  loosely 
applied,  and  covered  with  a  dense  coating  of  hair ;  the 
thermogenic  functions  are  active,  hence  the  internal  tem- 
perature is  high.  This  we  may  associate  with  smallness 
and  insensibility  of  the  organs  of  exit  of  heat  as  compared 
with  those  of  production.  The  other  excretory  organs, 
kidneys  and  liver,  are  large  and  active ;  the  ^urine  of  the 
ox  differing  in  some  marked  chemical  and  physical  char- 
acters from  that  of  the  horse. 

The  muscular  system  is  less  developed  for  functional 
purposes  than  that  of  the  horse,  and  is  less  compact. 
The  basement  structures  of  the  limbs  are  less  adapted  to 
secure  sharpness  and  precision  in  movements,  and  termi- 
nate inferiorly  in  division,  which  produces  the  characteristic 
cloven  condition  of  the  hoof  in  ruminants,  while  the  limbs 
of  the  ox  are  capable  of  more  varied  mobility  than  those 
of  the  horse,  of  which  the  forward  hick  is  a  rather  forcible 
illustration.  In  each  case  these  organs  are  used  simply 
for  purposes  of  progression,  the  ox  therefore  is  devoid  of 
ossific  union  of  the  fore  extremity  with  the  trunk,  the 
clavicle  being  absent  and  the  scapula  large. 

The  generative  system  is  largely  developed  both  in  male 
and  female.  Sexual  desires  are  urgent  in  the  male,  and 
he  is  specially  endowed  with  strength  and  weapons  suitable 
to  enable  him  to  maintain  supremely  against  intruders  into 
the  herd  of  which  he  is  lord  and  master.  A  struggle 
for  existence  among  the  males  determines  at  once  the 
numerical  excess  of  females  and  the  continued  improvement 
of  the  race.  The  female  is  prolific,  frequently  producing 
twins,  with  a  period  of  gestation  shorter  than  that  of  the 
mare.  The  mammary  gland  is  largely  developed  and 
placed  in  the  hypogastrium. 


INTEODUCTION.  57 

In  a  state  of  nature  the  ox  is  gregarious,  tlie  females 
mucli  predominating  in  numbers  over  tlie  males.  Inhabits 
prairies  and  other  wide  expanses  of  pasture  land,  spends  his 
time  partly  in  grazing  and  considerably  in  ruminating. 
Migrates  frequently  to  fresh  pasture  land  or  flies  rapidly 
with  considerable  energy  from  a  foe.  When  attacked, 
defends  himself  with  his  horns,  and  by  trampling  the  foe 
under  foot,  sometimes  also  by  kicking. 

Under  domestication  these  conditions  are  much  modi- 
fied. The  range  becomes  limited  to  meadows  and  straw 
yards,  or  to  the  extreme  of  stall  life,  thus  the  fat  produc- 
ing powers  are  increased,  leading  to  either  general  fatness 
for  feeding  purposes  or  to  increase  in  lacteal  secretion  to 
a  most  extraordinary  degree.  Warmth,  such  as  results 
from  shelter  and  diminished  supply  of  oxygen  due  to  con- 
finement, operate  in  the  same  direction,  and  tend  to 
diminish  vital  energy  while  encouraging  fat  production. 
Limited  range  also  lessens  the  activity  and  compactness 
of  the  muscular  system,  the  "  wiry ''  organism  of  the 
wild  animal  becomes  altered  into  the  "  soft ''  state  of  the 
domesticated.  There  is  no  necessity  for  frequent  migra- 
tion nor  flight  when  they  are  protected  by  man,  and  the 
prevention  of  combats  between  males  tends  to  interfere 
with  the  inherent  energy  of  the  race,  and  probably  to 
generate  a  more  docile  offspring.  Increased  supply  of 
more  nutritious  food,  obtained  without  the  necessity  of 
traversing  large  tracts  of  country,  and  without  the  dis- 
turbing influence  of  constant  dread,  causes  actual  increase 
in  the  size  of  the  race. 

Artificial  conditions  to  which  the  ox  is  subjected  are 
such  as  tend  to  diminish  the  circulatory,  respiratory,  and 
cerebro-spinal  sensory  organs,  to  lessen  acuteness  of  smell, 
taste,  sight,  and  probably  hearing,  and  also  the  secretory 
activity  of  the  skin.  On  the  contrary,  the  alimentary  and 
generative  systems  (with,  as  a  result,  the  ganglionic 
centres)  are  increased  in  activity  in  adaptation  to  our 
requirements. 

In  the  working  ox  the  conditions  of  life  are  not  so 
profoundly  altered;   he   spends  his   days   in   the  open  air 


58  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

utilising  his  locomotory  system^  and  not  indulging  in 
either  excess  of  alimentary  or  reproductive  pleasures.  He 
is  hardy,  but  gives  us  examples  of  diseases  of  the  locomotor 
system  as  also  of  the  cloven  hoof. 

Such  marked  subjection  to  the  uses  of  man  has  led  to 
two  results ;  increase  in  varieties  of  the  ox  and  increased 
liability  to  disease.  As  varieties  differ  from  the  original  stock 
so  in  direct  proportion  do  they  become  liable  to  disease,  and 
when  by  culture  we  generate  remarkable  activity  of  an  organ 
we  render  it  correspondingly  predisposed  to  disorder. 

In  the  production  of  a  breed  with  special  qualities  there 
is  a  transmission  of  hereditary  tendency  to  special  pecu- 
liarities of  structure  and  to  activity  of  function,  conditions 
predisposing  to  disease,  and  these  predispositions  are  very 
marked  as  a  result  of  "  breeding  in  and  in,^^  which  pre- 
vents the  counteraction  of  family  tendency  to  some  special 
degeneration  by  the  introduction  of  new  blood.  Excessive 
development  of  one  part  of  the  body  tends  to  cause  a  want 
of  reciprocity  of  different  parts  of  the  body,  to  the  preju- 
dice of  the  whole ;  only  by  very  gradual  development  can 
modifications  of  species  occur;  nature  shows  us  this,  for 
variation  under  domestication  tends  to  disease.  The  mere 
fact  of  breeding  from  near  relatives  is  not  prejudicial,  if 
both  be  in  a  state  of  thorough  health. 

Gregariousness  is  not  favorable  to  individual  peculiari- 
ties, nevertheless,  when  epizootic  disorders  occur  certain 
individuals  will  exhibit  immunity  under  extreme  conditions 
of  exposure ;  this  seriously  complicates  experiments  on 
the  transmission  of  these  disorders.  A  similar  immunity 
from  the  effects  of  altered  conditions  may  be  noted  after 
the  ingestion  of  medicinal  or  toxic  agents ;  some 
individuals  require  immense  doses,  while  others  become 
seriously  influenced  by  small  quantities.  The  latter  con- 
dition is  termed  intolerance  ;  the  former,  tolerance^  may 
be  due  to  frequent  administration  of  the  same  agent  when 
it  is  of  a  non-cumulative  character.  Immunity  in  certain 
blood  diseases  is  secured  often  by  an  attack  either  of  the 
same  or  of  a  closely  allied  disorder. 

Diet  acts  as  a  predisposing  cause  of  disease  either  by 


INTRODUCTION.  59 

its  quality,  quantity,  or  mode  of  preparation.  A  very 
rich  diet  predisposes  to  anthrax  and  inflammatory  disorders, 
a  poor  diet  to  anaemia  and  dropsies.  Food  materials  may 
be  in  themselves  prejudicial  either  by  medicinal  or  poison- 
ous constituents.  Mouldy  fodder  serves  to  illustrate 
this,  also  the  various  cases  of  poisoning  by  oil  cake. 
Excess  of  food  either  causes  excessive  distension  of  the 
stomach  as  in  plenalvia,  or,  when  in  small  quantities  fre- 
quently administered,  gives  rise  to  plethora.  Deficiency 
of  food  gives  rise  to  debility  and  anaemia.  When  not 
enough  food  at  a  time  is  given  to  an  ox  he  is  unable  to 
ruminate,  thus  indigestion  is  produced.  The  familiar 
instance  of  choking  from  an  uncut  swede  is  an  example  of 
ill  effects  from  improperly  prepared  foodstuff.  Diet 
unadapted  to  the  special  uses  for  which  an  animal  is  kept 
will  frequently  cause  disappointment  to  the  owner  and 
require  correction  by  the  veterinary  surgeon  consulted 
about  the  case.  An  extreme  instance  of  this  may  be 
seen  in  pregnant  animals,  for  the  nature  of  the  diet  will 
affect  the  well  being  of  the  foetus  in  iitero.  Anaemic 
conditions  of  the  mother  will  give  rise  to  dropsy  of  the 
foetus  and  its  membranes  and  perhaps  to  its  death, 
while  not  unfrequently  an  ergotised  condition  of  pasture 
grass  is  the  cause  of  abortion. 

Pregnancy  in  itself  alters  the  nutritive  equilibrium  of 
parts,  and  hence  predisposes  to  disease,  especially  of  the 
generative  organs ;  it  produces  important  though  tem- 
porary systemic  changes.  The  pulse  beats  more  rapidly, 
the  amount  of  carbonic  anhydride  excreted  from  the  lungs 
is  altered,  the  constituents  of  certain  excretions,  especially 
the  urine, are  modified,  the  appetite  often  becomes  depraved, 
and  the  state  of  the  nervous  system  different  from  ordi- 
nary. These  changes  culminate  in  the  special  phenomena 
of  parturition  and  lactation,  and  with  decline  of  the  latter 
diminishes  the  predisposition  to  disease  from  pregnancy. 
The  conditions  of  surrounding  air  may  predispose  to 
disease.  Many  specific  disorders  originate  through  vola- 
tile contagions  conveyed  through  the  air  and  taken  up 
through  the  respiratory  mucous  membrane ;  this  is  termed 


60  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY 

Infection.  Again,  the  air  has  an  important  influence  on 
respiration  and  cutaneous  exhalations.  When  loaded 
with  deleterious  gases  it  may  act  as  a  poison,  but  if  these 
be  present  only  in  small  quantities  it  may  simply  produce 
local  disorder.  Variations  in  the  surrounding  air  consist 
principally  in  moisture,  temperature,  or  purity.  When 
moisture  is  deficient,  but  the  air  warm,  the  skin  acts 
readily  but  the  muscular  system  is  relaxed,  hence  the 
system  is  predisposed  to  hernise.  Tetanus  is  prevalent 
in  countries  with  such  a  prevailing  climate  as  this,  and 
diseases  become  acute.  Warmth,  with  moisture,  while 
determining  blood  to  the  skin,  lessens  the  escape  of 
moisture  from  the  surface  and  from  the  lungs ;  thus  a 
sluggish  lymphatic  condition  is  induced,  and  the  animal  is 
predisposed  to  dropsical  effusions  and  low  fevers.  These 
conditions  are  specially  favorable  to  the  growth  and 
multiplication  of  vegetable  organisms,  fungi,  such  as  give 
rise  to  anthracoid  disorders  and  intermittent  fevers.  Cold, 
with  dryness,  produces  just  the  reverse  effects,  and  gives 
a  very  low  rate  of  mortality.  It  is  remarked  that  the 
first  touch  of  frost  checks  the  ravages  of  an  epi- 
zootic. These  conditions  tend  to  slowness  and  stunted 
growth,  but  produce  hardihood,  and  are  favorable  to 
the  healing  of  wounds  without  the  occurrence  of  septic 
accidents.  Cold  with  moisture,  tends  to  a  lowering  of 
vital  energy,  and  an  accumulation  of  impurities  in  the 
system  due  to  defective  excretion  by  the  lungs  and  skin, 
diseases  tend  to  an  asthenic  type,  internal  congestions 
frequently  occur,  and  rheumatismal  diseases  are  prevalent 
and  severe.  But  where  currents  of  air  give  rise  to  draughts 
they  are  active  agents  in  production  of  disorder,  they 
disturb  the  nervous  system  and  originate  inflammation 
in  that  organ  which  is  most  predisposed  to  disease. 
While  warmth  promotes  fattening  and  the  production  of 
milk,  it  must  not  be  procured  at  the  expense  of  venti- 
lation and  drainage.  Unless  fresh  air  is  admitted,  and 
foul  air  escapes,  and  ejecta  are  not  allowed  to  accumulate, 
the  air  in  the  cowhouse  will  become  overloaded  with 
impurities  which  predispose  to  disease,  will  tend  to  make 


INTEODUCTION.  61 

epizootics  and  other  specific  disorders  of  a  highly  destruc- 
tive character,  will  induce  any  disease  which  occurs  to 
assume  a  low  type.  The  drinking  water  supplied  to  an 
animal  may  be  so  impure  as  to  originate  or  communicate 
disease.  Besides  the  conditions  already  mentioned,  age, 
sex,  and  conformation  determine  individual  liability  to 
disease.  Young  animals  respire  quickly,  have  a  quick  pulse, 
and  high  internal  temperature,  they  are  particularly  liable  to 
diseases  of  growth,  to  acute  inflammations,  and  to  catarrhal 
affections  of  the  alimentary  and  respiratory  tracts,  also 
their  constitutional  energy  is  hardly  able  to  check  and 
counteract  the  ravages  of  entozoa.  In  adult  animals  the 
tendency  is  to  certain  disorders  resulting  from  diet,  also  to 
diseases  of  the  generative  system.  In  old  animals  we 
find  the  effects  of  deficient  energy  of  the  heart  and 
degeneracy  of  blood-vessels ;  hence  metastatic  congestions, 
senile  gangrene,  and  heart  disorders  occur  especially  in 
them.  Male  animals  are  most  liable  to  acute  disorders, 
as  being  endued  with  higher  vital  energy  than  females. 
Castration  materially  modifies  constitutional  conditions, 
and  secures  immunity  from  such  acute  disorders  of  the 
generative  organs  as  occur  in  the  entire  animal,  facilitates 
fattening,  and  lessens  liability  to  injury.  It  causes  the 
disorder  known  as  pelvic  hernia  or  "  gut-tie.^^  Females 
run  the  risks  of  parturition  and  lactation,  their  respira- 
tory, circulatory,  and  nervous  functions  are  generally  less 
active  than  those  of  the  male.  Conformation  and  the 
uses  to  which  the  animal  has  been  put  have  marked 
effects  as  predisposing  causes  ;  thus,  the  shortness  of 
the  neck  of  the  ox  accounts  for  his  frequent  attacks  of 
apoplexy,  and  too  free  exercise  of  generative  powers 
will  bring  about  atrophy  of  the  bulFs  testes.  Previous 
disease  of  an  organ  predisposes  it  to  renewal  of  an  attack. 
Sometimes  only  imperfect  repair  occurs,  and  the  partially 
formed  tissue  is  liable  to  again  become  the  seat  of  morbid 
changes,  even  without  the  action  of  any  appreciable 
excitant.  Recurrent  abscesses  are  of  this  nature,  as  also 
certain  forms  of  dysentery.  Exciting  causes  are  varied, 
such  as  exposure  to  currents  of  cold  air,  sudden  transition 


62  BOVINE    PATHOLOar. 

from  cold  to  heat,  mechanical  and  chemical  irritants. 
They  will  be  specified  under  the  heading  of  each  disease. 
The  general  symptoms  manifested  by  cattle  suffering 
from  acute  disorders  are  dulness  and  separation  from  the 
rest  of  the  herd,  unwillingness  to  move,  a  ^^  hide  bound  " 
or  "staring^'  condition  of  the  coat  (cutis  anserina). 
The  animals  do  not  lick  themselves  or  one  another, 
nor  stretch  properly  on  rising ;  dryness  of  muffle, 
failure  or  deficiency  of  the  appetite,  and  cessation  of 
rumination.  In  the  milch  cow  the  lacteal  secretion  is 
diminished  or  suppressed.  Frequently  when  these  are 
observed  examination  by  the  experienced  will  detect 
fever  and  even  local  disorder,  but  generally  we  have  only 
the  history  of  the  case  to  determine  any  efforts  against 
special  contingencies.  Nursing  must  here  be  relied 
upon.  The  patient  must  be  housed  in  a  moderately  warm, 
well- ventilated  place,  frictions  applied  to  the  surface,  and 
laxative,  easily  digestible  matter  given  as  food ;  change  of 
diet  being  particularly  beneficial,  but  the  appetite  must  be 
tempted,  not  forced.  A  diffusible  stimulant  will  be 
useful  under  these  circumstances,  it  may  divert  an  inflam- 
matory attack,  and  is  so  evanescent  that  it  will  not  influence 
any  disorder  which  may  assert  itself  shortly  after.  The 
experience  of  many  observers  has  sanctioned  also  the 
administration  of  a  laxative  saline  dose  at  the  same  time. 
The  alimentary  canal  being  so  extensive  in  the  ox  is  often 
laden  with  matter  of  an  indigestible  character,  which  will 
tend  to  aggravate  local  or  general  disorder.  The  Pulse 
of  the  ox  may  be  taken  at  the  submaxillary  artery,  the 
vessel  of  the  right  side  being  felt  by  the  right  hand 
passed  over  the  neck,  while  the  left  hand  holds  the  left 
horn ;  at  the  brachial  within  and  rather  to  the  front  of  the 
elbow- joint,  the  hand  being  passed  round  the  front  of  the 
limb  to  its  junction  with  the  trunk ;  at  the  large 
metacarpal  above  and  behind  the  fetlock ;  at  the  middle 
coccygeal  on  the  middle  line  of  the  root  of  the  tail ;  at  the 
carotids  in  the  channel  of  the  neck  ;  and  at  the  anterior 
auricular  in  front  of  the  root  of  the  conchial  cartilage. 
Different  practitioners  make  a  practice  of  selecting  each  one 


INTRODUCTION.  63 

of  ttese  vessels.  The  submaxillary  we  find  the  generally- 
most  convenient ;  it  is  smaller  and  less  firmly  bound  down, 
and  therefore  suffers  more  displacement  than  the  correspond- 
ing vessel  in  the  horse ;  also  the  arrangement  of  the  lower 
margin  of  the  inferior  maxilla  and  masseter  externus  are 
less  advantageous  for  accurate  determination  of  its  position, 
and  the  pulse  can  not  be  estimated  here  when  the  animal 
is  feeding.  The  brachial  or  radial  artery  will  afford  useful 
indications  after  a  little  practice;  the  large  metacarpal 
is  a  vessel  of  considerable  size,  and  can  be  conveniently 
felt  without  disturbing  a  patient  who  chances  to  be  in  a 
recumbent  position.  The  pulse  in  the  ox  is  small,  slow, 
and  frequent  as  compared  with  that  of  the  horse,  its  beats 
average  46  per  minute.  In  the  young  animal  it  is 
faster  (55—65). 

Pregnancy  causes  irregularity  of  the  pulse,  and  con- 
siderable increase  in  frequency.  Digestion  produces  in- 
creased fulness  and  sharpness  ;  and  Dobson  tells  us  : — 
'^  Animals  in  warm  cowsheds  and  in  plethoric  condition 
will  have  the  number  of  beats  increased  several  strokes 
per  minute  as  compared  with  their  brethren  in  the  straw- 
yard  and  the  field.^'  Williams  says : — ''  In  the  cow 
during  rumination  it  may  be  observed  that  the  pulse  is  70 
or  80  a  minute,  and  the  respirations  not  more  than  ten. 
Indeed,  the  pulse  of  the  cow  in  a  state  of  confinement,  in 
so  far  as  regards  the  number  of  its  beats,  cannot  be  de- 
pended upon  in  the  diagnosis  of  disease;  the  states  of 
pregnancy  and  obesity,  the  effects  of  artificial  food,  and 
of  the  activity  of  the  lactiferous  glands,  as  well  as  the  ex- 
citement caused  by  the  act  of  rumination,  generally  pro- 
duce such  an  impression  upon  the  nervous  system  as  to 
cause  the  action  of  the  heart  to  be  much  increased,  such 
increase  being  entirely  consistent  with  a  state  of  perfect 
health  in  an  animal  so  circumstanced.^^ 

Useful  information  is  gained  by  examining  the  heart's 
action  by  auscultation,  placing  the  head  against  the 
side.  The  "  venous  pulse "  is  the  periodical  change  in 
calibre  of  a  vein,  which  sometimes  results  from  regurgi- 
tation of  blood  into  it.      It  is  seen  at  the  jugulars  in  heart 


64  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

disease,  but  in  health  generally  the  action  of  the  carotid 
artery  causes  changes  in  the  jugular  which  lead  to  appa- 
rently pulsating  movements. 

The  normal  temperature  of  the  ox,  as  taken  at  the 
rectum,  is  38°  0.-38-5°  C,  according  to  Colin;  38*9°  C. 
(Siedamgrotsky)  ;  39°  C.  (Zundel)  ;  oxen  and  cows  100*8° 
F.  during  confinement,  and  101*8°  F.  during  work  or  at 
liberty;  calves  and  stirks,  100*9°  F.  to  101*9  F.  (Armatage). 

Variations  resulting  from  ordinary  conditions  of  the 
system  are  but  slight,  seldom  amounting  to  more  than 
1°  F.  Any  rise  above  this  must  be  considered  suspicious 
as  indicating  the  presence  of  fever.  The  reading  will  be 
higher  in  a  young  animal  and  lower  than  the  normal  mean 
in  a  very  old  animal.  Ingestion  of  food,  exercise,  and 
change  of  external  temperature  cause  slight  variation. 
The  thermal  regulators  of  the  body  are  very  efficient  during 
health.  When  fever  sets  in,  escape  of  heat  is  prevented  and 
its  generation  increased;  in  typhoid  disorders  and  shortly 
before  death  heat  generation  is  interfered  with,  and  the 
temperature  markedly  falls.  The  rectum  should  always  be 
the  seat  of  thermometric  observations  in  the  ox,  and  the 
routine  already  recommended  should  be  always  carried  out. 
The  temperature  of  the  vagina  is  somewhat  lower. 

Eespiration  is  performed  in  the  adult  ox  about  fifteen 
times  per  minute.  The  acts  are  slightly  more  frequent  in 
the  calf  (18 — 20).  They  vary  in  number  somewhat  with 
surrounding  conditions,  but  any  marked  increase  or 
decrease  in  number  must,  if  permanent,  be  attributed  to 
disease.  The  increase  which  results  from  exercise  quickly 
disappears  when  the  animal  is  placed  at  rest.  We  have 
already  alluded  to  the  remarkable  difference  in  position 
between  the  horse  and  ox  suffering  from  pulmonary  dis- 
order ;  while  the  former  stands  persistently,  the  latter 
rests  on  the  lower  part  of  the  chest  and  on  the  abdomen. 
The  position  which  an  animal  assumes  during  an  acute 
attack  is  often  diagnostic  or  even  pathognomonic.  This 
may  be  seen  in  tetanus,  in  hoven,  and  many  other 
diseases. 

The  CouGHof  the  ox  is  shorter  and  less  powerful  than  that 


INTRODUCTION.  65 

of  the  horse.  It  may  become  almost  pathognomonic  in 
certain  diseases,  as  especially  pleuro-pneumonia  contagiosa. 
In  our  determination  of  disease  of  the  ox,  as  in  those 
of  most  other  dumb  animals,  we  have  to  rely  principally 
on  OBJECTIVE  symptoms,  which  are  independent  of  the 
animal's  sensations,  rather  than  upon  those  subjective  in- 
dications conveyed  by  the  animal  himself.  Nevertheless, 
we  have  a  few  of  the  latter  to  guide  us,  such  as  shaking 
of  the  feet  in  eczema  epizootica,  backing  in  pelvic  hernia, 
and  flinching  when  pressure  is  applied  to  the  intercostal 
spaces  in  cases  of  pleuritis.  The  expression  of  the  animal 
is  often  the  means  of  conveyance  of  useful  information 
to  us  j  the  retracted  condition  of  the  angles  of  the 
mouth  in  trismus,  the  wild  look  in  rabies,  the  staring 
of  the  eyes  under  acute  abdominal  pain,  and  the  altered 
expression  due  to  opacity  of  the  eye  are  familiar  to 
most  practitioners.  General  sensation  is  sometimes  per- 
verted or  lost,  and  is  tested  by  inserting  a  pin  into  a  limb 
presumed  to  be  paralysed.  The  movements  of  the  animal 
may  be  stiff  as  in  tetanus,  rheumatism,  &c.,  or  the  inter- 
ference may  amount  to  absolute  lameness,  due  either  to 
disorder  of  the  affected  limb  or  to  sympathy  with  other 
parts,  as  may  be  observed  in  the  lameness  of  the  right 
fore-limb  in  liver  disorder.  The  nisihle  mucous  mem- 
branes of  the  ox  during  health  somewhat  vary  in  colour. 
The  Schneiderian  is  moist  and  pink,  but  under  disease 
may  become  livid,  yellow,  scarlet,  or  very  pale,  ulcerated, 
and  covered  with  discharge  of  a  nature  varying  according 
to  the  case,  mucous,  purulent,  sanguineous,  &c.  The 
lining  membrane  of  the  mouth  is  very  dense  in  the  ox, 
developed  into  horny  papillae  on  the  inner  surface  of  the 
cheek  and  the  dorsum  of  the  tongue,  and  modified  to  form 
the  dental  pad  at  its  antero-superior  part.  It  sometimes 
exhibits  abrasions  either  from  coarse  material  taken  into  the 
mouth,  or  from  the  sharp  prominences  of  the  molar  teeth. 
In  other  cases  it  has  vesicles  of  a  specific  or  ordinary  cha- 
racter upon  it ;  in  febrile  cases  it  is  dry.  While  observing 
its  condition  we  can  note  also  the  characters  of  the  saliva, 
which  may  be  profuse,  constituting  Ptyalism,  as   seen  in 

5 


66  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

injuries  of  the  mouth  or  mercury  poisoning,  or  defi- 
cient. Sometimes  it  is  materially  altered  in  quality, 
thus  it  may  be  viscid  ("  ropy '')  or  foetid,  as  in  some 
cases  of  tetanus.  In  cases  of  enteritis  and  other  abdo- 
minal inflammatory  disorders,  the  rectum  will,  on  manual 
exploration,  be  found  markedly  elevated  in  temperature, 
and  its  mucous  membrane  may  protrude  somewhat 
through  the  anus,  being  of  a  bright  scarlet  colour.  In 
prolapsus  recti  it  forms  a  rounded  purple  mass,  its  walls 
being  thickened  by  gelatinous  deposit.  This  mucous 
membrane  is  the  seat  of  tumours  (haemorrhoids  or  piles) 
which  may  protrude  after  expulsion  of  the  faeces.  Manual 
exploration  of  the  rectum  of  the  ox  presents  no  special 
features.  The  fceces  are  soft,  pultaceous,  and  form  a 
rounded  cake  of  a  dark  greenish-brown  colour.  They  may 
be  altered  in  quality  or  quantity,  scanty  or  wanting  as  in 
constipation  and  costiveness,  profuse  in  diarrhoea  and  dy- 
sentery, mixed  with  much  mucus  in  the  former  and  with 
blood  in  the  latter  case.  The  nature  of  the  diet  and  the 
activity  or  inertness  of  the  liver  alter  their  qualities,  while 
their  odour  also  is  very  variable.  The  mucous  membrane 
of  the  vulva  may  be  altered  in  colour,  ulcerated,  or  the 
seat  of  profuse  discharge  of  a  purulent,  mucous,  or  san- 
guineous nature;  it  becomes  congested  during  oestrum. 
The  conjunctiva  during  health  is  of  a  rosy  colour  where  it 
lines  the  eyelids,  and  transparent  where  it  invests  the 
cornea.  In  the  latter  position  it  may  become  opaque  and 
clouded,  in  the  former  of  a  bright  scarlet  in  cases  of 
fever,  yellow  in  liver  disease,  pale  in  anaemia,  &c.  The 
tears  may  be  profuse,  as  in  local  irritation,  blocking  of  the 
ductus  ad  nasum,  and  in  the  early  stages  of  catarrh  ;  acrid, 
as  in  certain  blood  diseases;  mucous  or  purulent  under 
inflammation.  The  eyes  may  be  over  sensitive  to  light, 
in  consequence  of  which  the  eyelids  droop ;  frequently  the 
Meibomian  secretion  is  profuse  and  adhesive,  and  the  eye- 
lids are  swollen.  The  conditions  of  the  alimentary  canal 
afPord  some  useful  indications.  Examination  of  the  mouth 
may  detect  diseased  teeth,  presence  of  foreign  bodies,  &c. 
Enlargement  may  be  present  along  the  cervical  portion  of 


INTRODUCTION.  67 

the  course  of  the  oesophagus,  due  either  to  presence  of 
an  impacted  body,  or  to  a  dilated  state  of  the  tube.  De- 
glutition may  be  difficult  (dysorexia)  or  the  appetite 
impaired  or  absent  (anorexia). 

Nausea  may  be  present  or  vomition,  the  former  being 
an  uncomfortable  sensation,  manifested  by  attempts  to 
return  matters  from  the  stomach  for  expulsion  from  the 
body,  the  latter  being  a  successful  performance  of  the  act. 
These  are  due  to  irritability  of  the  stomach,  and  evacua- 
tion of  the  contents  of  the  rumen  somewhat  readily  occurs 
in  the  ox,  in  consequence  of  the  adaptation  of  the  oesophagus 
for  regurgitation,  as  well  as  downward  passage  of  food. 

BoRBORYGMA  is  abnormal  rumbling  of  the  bowels,  such  as 
may  be  observed  after  administration  of  drastic  purgatives. 
Often  it  depends  on  accumulation  of  gas  in  the  stomach  or 
intestines,  flatulence,  or  tympany.  The  conditions  of  the 
ahdomeriy  whether  diminished  in  size,  "  tucked  up  ^^  as  in 
acute  disorders,  or  distended  by  gas,  tumours,  or  food 
accumulations,  should  be  noted.  The  size,  movements,  and 
general  conditions  of  the  thoracic  walls  also  vary. 

The  Urine  of  the  ox  normally  has  a  specific  gravity  of 
1030 — 1040,  a  yellowish- white  colour,  a  special  odour,  and 
an  alkaline  reaction.  Its  chemical,  physical,  and  micro- 
scopical characters  vary  much  with  different  conditions  of 
life  and  in  disease.  The  specific  gravity  may  be  tested  by 
the  urinometer,  or  by  specific-gravity  globules.  The  urine 
will  be  found  modified,  under  various  circumstances,  in 
quality  and  quantity,  and  especially  in  proportions  of  its 
several  constituents. 

The  Skin  op  the  ox  exhibits  a  fair  amount  of  activity. 
Animals  in  health  keep  it  clean  by  licking,  and  thus  often 
introduce  hairs  into  the  stomach.  Perspiration  may  occur 
generally  or  locally  under  disease,  and  the  perverted  con- 
ditions of  the  cutaneous  secretions  in  weak  patients,  and 
those  with  a  scrofulous  tendency,  as  also  dirt  accumulations, 
predispose  to  local  irritations,  and  invasion  by  vegetable 
or  animal  parasites. 

The  expired  Air  has  an  odour  characteristic  of  the 
animal,    due   to   effete    matter   which  it  carries  from  the 


68  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

system.  Its  temperature  and  odour  vary.  Thus^  it  may 
be  cold  in  later  stages  of  asthenic  disorders,  warm  in  acute 
attacks,  foetid  in  gangrenous  disease  of  the  lungs. 

Our  prognosis,  when  medically  attending  the  lower 
animals,  does  not  hold  in  view  simply  the  chances  of  a  fatal 
result ;  we  have  to  consider  our  cases  from  a  pecuniary  point 
of  view,  and  to  determine  promptly  for  the  owner  the  length 
of  time  which  will  elapse  before  return  to  health,  and  also 
whether  the  value  of  the  animal  after  recovery  will  be  such 
as  to  make  treatment  an  advantage  to  the  owner.  Prompt 
decision  is  especially  called  in  a  case  of  disease  in  the  ox, 
for  the  flesh  of  an  animal  slaughtered  in  the  early  stages  of 
some  diseases,  before  the  system  has  been  interfered  with 
by  medicinal  agents,  may  be  used  for  human  food.  This 
seems  to  lessen  our  opportunities  of  tracing  cases  of  dis- 
ease in  the  ox  from  commencement  to  termination,  and 
proves  a  very  sharp  test  as  to  the  correctness  of  our  dia- 
gnoses. We  often  have  an  animal  brought  under  our 
notice  in  sufficiently  good  condition  to  fetch  a  good  price 
from  the  butcher.  The  owner  propounds  the  following 
questions  in  order  : — What  is  the  matter  with  this  animal  ? 
Will  it  be  likely  to  die  ?  How  soon  will  it  recover  ? 
Will  it  be  reduced  considerably  ?  and,  if  so,  how  long  will 
it  take  to  regain  its  present  state  of  flesh  ?  If  it  seems 
likely  to  die,  it  is  at  once  killed,  and  our  diagnosis  verified 
or  the  reverse.  If  it  is  allowed  to  live,  the  prognosis  is 
subjected  to  similar  smart  scrutiny.  With  milch  cows 
the  interference  with  milk  supply  is  the  source  of  the 
owner's  solicitude ;  while  animals  kept  for  breeding  pur- 
poses necessitate  considerations  of  the  bearings  of  various 
disorders  on  the  reproductive  functions.  In  no  branch 
of  medical  study  does  the  practitioner  require  skill  more 
than  in  cattle  practice. 

The  milk  varies  in  quality  and  quantity,  and  its  production 
has  been  much  increased  by  artificial  selection.  The  first 
milk,  colostrum  or  beastlings,  is  rich  in  fatty  matter  and 
worn-out,  tough,  epithelial  cells  filled  with  fat  globules. 
It  acts  as  a  natural  cathartic,  freeing  the  bowels  of  the 
newly-born  calf  from  the  accumulation  of  biliary  and  other 


INTRODUCTION.  69 

matters  which  constitute  the  meconium.  The  milk  may 
be  bloody,  may  contain  pus  or  specific  virus.  It  requires 
special  examination  in  each  case  of  disorder,  for  in  some 
instances  it  can  convey  disease  to  animals  of  other  species, 
even  to  man.  Death  of  the  ox  may  take  place  by  either  of 
the  above  described  methods,  necraemia  being  observable 
in  such  disease  as  anthrax,  according  to  some  pathologists, 
while  others  attribute  the  fatal  result  to  asphyxia.  With 
regard  to  morbid  changes,  the  degenerations  of  various 
kinds  are  frequent,  especially  the  caseous  and  calcareous, 
and  the  tendency  of  disease  is  to  the  production  of  deposits 
of  a  lymphy  or  serous  character  rather  than  to  gangrene 
and  ulceration.  Abscesses  are  frequent,  metastases  seldom 
occur,  haBmorrhages  are  rather  frequent.  Inflammation 
tends  rather  to  the  chronic  type,  and  is  less  frequent  than 
in  most  other  animals  subjected  to  similarly  complex 
conditions  as  the  ox.  Epizootic  and  enzootic  diseases  will 
occupy  a  great  deal  of  our  space  as  being  of  great 
importance,  numerous,  and  widespread,  causing  immense 
annual  loss  to  stock  owners,  and  often  directly  related 
to  human  disorders. 

In  the  treatment  of  the  diseases  of  the  ox  palliative 
measures  are  often  important  as  giving  time  for  fattening 
or  as  preserving  an  animal  useful  for  breeding  or  dairy 
purposes.  Curative  means  of  medicinal  character  are 
often  hampered  by  our  deficiency  in  information  as  to  the 
specific  influence  of  certain  agents  on  the  ox  and  the  doses 
in  which  they  should  be  administered.  Surgical  opera- 
tions of  minor  importance  as  oesophagotomy,  tracheotomy, 
and  puncture  of  the  rumen  are  frequent,  while  major 
operations,  amputations,  lithotomy,  laparotomy,  &c.,  are- 
occasionally  resorted  to  and  might  be  more  frequent,  but 
we  have  already  mentioned  how  our  bovine  patients  are 
frequently  handed  over  to  the  butcher  without  our  having 
had  a  fair  trial  of  curative  means.  In  accordance  with 
paucity  of  major  operations  anaesthetics  are  seldom  re- 
sorted to,  but  various  means  of  restraint  are  adopted. 
Altogether  cattle  are  not  endowed  with  high  nervous 
organisation,  and  will  therefore  stand  operations  very  well^ 


70  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

and  are  correspondingly  seldom  the  subjects  of  collapse. 
Thus  artificial  respiration  is  not  very  frequently  required, 
fortunately  so,  for  when  brought  about  by  pressure  rhyth- 
mically applied  to  the  thoracic  walls  it  is  imperfect,  and 
seldom  effectual  in  our  larger  patients.  The  ox  is  usually 
held  by  one  horn,  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  dis- 
engaged hand  being  introduced  into  the  nostrils  and 
pressed  together  against  the  septum  narium,  or  the  familiar 
'^  bull-dog  "  is  fixed  to  the  nostrils  in  a  somewhat  similar 
manner  and  held  in  the  hand.     (See  Fig.  6.) 


-^x-^ 


Fig.  6. — The  "  Bulldogs  "  applied.    (Armatage.) 

The  Sideline  is  sometimes  fixed  on  the  ox  as  on  the 
horse. 

In  minor  operations  on  the  posterior  parts  of  the  body, 
the  hind  legs  are  fixed  together  by  means  of  a  double 
hobble  or  tied  by  a  rope,  which  commences  at  the  right 
hind  limb,  involves  the  left  in  a  loop,  and  is  tied  in  front 
to  the  right  fore  limb  above  the  fetlock.  This  is  termed 
"  shackling.^^ 

Hobbles  are  also  used  for  throwing  the  ox.  It  is  ad- 
visable to  fix  them  above  the  fetlocks.  Calves  may  be 
thrown  by  drawing  one  hind  leg  forwards  with  the  side- 
line and  pushing  at  the  opposite  quarter. 

Ropes.     The  ox  is  very  frequently  thrown  just  as  is  the 


INTRODUCTION. 


71 


horse  when  the  long  cart   rope  is  used  for  securing  the 
animal  for  castration.      (See  Fig.  7.) 

Dressing  the  feet  of  the  ox,  as  in  eczema  epizootica, 
may  be  effected  either  by  means  of  a  long  stick  with  some 
tow  fixed  on  the  end,  or,  when  the  hind  feet  are  to  be 
treated,  by  raising  the  foot   towards  a   beam  by  a  hobble 


Fig.  7. — An  Ox  prepared  for  casting,     a.  Seat  of  u 

(Armatage.) 


5^rj^^.^b^ 


fixed  above  the  hock,  the  rope  passing  from  it  over  the  beam 
and  its  free  end  held  by  assistants.  Another  method  is  to 
pass  a  pole  between  the  hind  legs  and  have  the  limb  sup- 
ported just  above  bend  of  the  hock  by  a  man  at  each  end 
of  the  pole  in  such  a  way  as  to  raise  the  limb  as  much  as 
required. 

Slinging  of  the  ox  is  not  often  resorted  to.  It  too 
much  interferes  with  digestive  and  respiratory  processes. 

Four  drachms  of  chloroform  administered  to  a  two-year 
old  heifer  caused  slow  and  laboured  respirations  at  the 
end  of  a  minute,  at  two  and  a  half  minutes  the  animal 
staggered,  and  at  three  and  a  half  minutes  fell  to  the 
ground.  At  six  minutes  the  breathing  had  become  more 
laborious.  At  six  and  a  half  minutes  the  animal  seemed 
completely  insensible,  the  pupils  were  fully  dilated,  the 
conjunctivae  congested.      The  sponge  was  now  removed. 


72  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

At  ten  minutes  respiration  became  quick  and  agitated;  at 
eleven  minutes  the  animal  got  up  but  had  much  difficulty 
in  standing  ;  shortly  afterwards  it  staggered  into  the  straw- 
yard.  Morton  gave  four  ounces  of  chloroform  to  a  heifer, 
and  it  produced  no  insensibility,  the  animal  only  seeming 
to  be  intoxicated  by  it  (^Veterinary  Record,'  vol.  iv). 

Method  of  administration  of  chloroform  to  large  animals. 
— It  is  essential  that  the  animal  be  cast  previous  to 
administration,  otherwise  he  will  be  uncontrollable  in  the 
preliminary  stage  of  excitation.  Then  a  due  admixture 
of  air  must  be  ensured  by  the  use  of  an  apparatus  with 
two  tubes,  one  of  which  communicates  with  the  outer  air 
the  other  passing  from  the  chloroform  vessel,  each  fitting 
at  the  other  extremity  into  a  nostril  j  several  inhalers 
varying  slightly  in  form  have  been  suggested.  Or  a 
sponge  with  chloroform  poured  on  it  may  be  held  against 
the  muzzle,  and  the  hand  and  muzzle  loosely  covered  with 
a  cloth,  the  chloroform  being  renewed  from  time  to  time. 
The  amount  of  chloroform  essential  for  the  production  of 
insensibility  to  external  impressions  varies  much  in  different 
cases,  and  must  be  regulated  by  the  judgment  of  the 
chloroformist.  If  after  the  operation  is  completed  the 
animal  does  not  regain  sensibility  sufficiently  soon,  cold 
water  may  be  thrown  over  the  body  and  air  freely 
admitted. 

Why  nursing  should  not  be  utilised  to  the  full  in 
treatment  of  cattle  affections,  when  circumstances  are 
favorable,  we  cannot  say,  but  in  some  quarters  there 
seems  to  be  a  prejudice  against  nursing  an  ox.  It  must 
be  our  duty  in  every  case  to  ensure  such  nursing  means  as 
we  have  already  indicated,  they  will  very  materially  assist 
our  medicines  ;  even  rough  methods  of  preserving  a  com- 
fortable warmth  of  the  surface  of  the  body  and  a  duo 
supply  of  fresh  air,  and  a  draught  of  cool  water  so  refresh- 
ing to  the  palate  of  a  feverish  patient,  are  valuable. 

The  jprevention  of  disease  consists  in  the  careful  super- 
vision of  those  details  of  management  which  experience 
has  suggested  as  best  for  various  kinds  of  animals,  but  it 
assumes   a   special   character  when  we    are  requested  to 


INTRODUCTION.  73 

check  the  ravages  of  an  epizootic  in  a  herd  or  to  prevent 
access  of  a  dreaded  disorder. 

In  such  cases  isolation  must  be  rigidly  enforced,  all 
predisposing  and  exciting  causes  must  be  removed  or 
obviated.  The  slightest  trace  of  disease,  of  any  kind,  in 
one  or  more  of  the  animals,  must  lead  to  segregation. 
Measures  of  disinfection  of  houses,  utensils,  and  atten- 
dants, must  be  carried  out  with  energy ;  and  to  effect 
this,  the  manager  of  the  herd  must  be  a  thoroughly  reli- 
able man.  Under  these  circumstances  we  shall  probably 
succeed  in  our  efforts  to  prevent  or  limit  an  invasion. 


Section  3.      • 

In  the  present  section  we  will  place  before  our  readers 
as  succinctly  as  possible  the  therapeutical  actions  of 
such  medicinal  agents  as  have  been  utilised  in  the 
treatment  of  cattle,  availing  ourselves  of  modern  thera- 
peutical ideas,  of  the  researches  which  have  recently  been 
occupying  observers  of  the  actions  of  medicines,  and  of 
the  assistance  of  the  several  works  on  veterinary  medicine 
and  pharmacy,  which  have  been  presented  to  the  profes- 
sion. We  shall  follow  in  the  main  the  system  adopted 
by  Headland  in  his  most  admirable  ^Action  of  Medi- 
cines,^ adapting  this  to  our  special  requirements.  We 
shall  use  the  tabular  form  as  most  economical  of  space, 
and  shall  so  arrange  matters  that  we  may  utilise  our 
system  afterwards  in  our  notice  of  toxicology. 

For  ADMINISTRATION  to  the  OX  agents  are  generally  prepared 
in  a  draught  (or  '^ Drench''),  soluble  matters  being  dissolved 
in  the  water,  which  is  usually  the  principal  vehicle,  insoluble 
matters  being  in  a  state  of  powder  and  suspended.  Drenches 
are  preferred  for  the  ox  because  they  can  be  readily  ad- 
ministered, act  sooner  than  solid  masses,  and  probably  al- 
most always  mainly  pass  into  the  third  and  fourth  stomachs 
directly  without  delay  in  the  rumen,  and  the  chance  of 
rejection  during  rumination.  In  practice  a  bottle  with 
a  gradually  tapering  neck  is   found  to  be  useful  for  ad- 


74  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

ministering  the  dose.  Generally  the  head  of  the  patient 
is  straightened  on  the  neck  by  drawing  the  muzzle 
forwards  and  upwards_,  the  nostrils  being  grasped  so  as 
not  materially  to  interfere  with  respiration.  Preferably, 
however,  the  head  is  flexed  to  the  right,  and  the  admin- 
istrator stands  with  his  back  against  the  right  shoulder, 
keeps  the  left  hand  partially  in  the  left  side  of  the  mouth, 
and  gives  the  draughJ:  with  the  right.  The  opening 
of  the  bottle  is  then  inserted  into  the  mouth,  and  the 
contents  gradually  allowed  to  pass  down  towards  the 
pharynx  j  sometimes  the  drenching  horn  is  used,  but  the 
bottle  is  preferable  as  giving  continuous,  steady,  and 
ready  flow.  This  operation  is  much  easier  than  adminis- 
tration of  a  draught  to  a  horse,  the  ox  receives  his  drench 
more  quickly,  and  loses  hardly  any.  It  is  necessary  to 
cease  the  operation  when  an}^  sign  of  coughing  appears. 
An  ordinary  cattle  drench  measures  from  a  pint  and  a  half 
to  two  pints.  Cases  of  suffocation  from  passage  of  fluid 
into  the  larynx  and  trachea  occur  sometimes,  as  we  shall 
detail  hereafter.  This  is  liable  to  take  place  in  attacks 
of  parturient  apoplexy,  and  must  be  avoided  by  giving 
any  medicines  the  animal  requires  by  means  of  the 
stomach  pump.      Some  practitioners  consider  halls  useful 


Fig.  8. — The  Stomach-pump  in  use.     (Armatage.) 

for  the   ox,    others   as  strongly    object   to    them.      Aloes 
may  be  conveniently  and  beneficially  administered  in  this 


INTRODUCTION. 


75 


form ;  its  active  principle  is  soluble  in  alkaline  solu- 
tions^ such  as  the  secretion  of  the  rumen,  and  hence 
becomes  more  rapidly  absorbed  than  it  would  have  been 
if  it  had  passed  at  once  into  the  true  digestive  stomach. 
Few  other  agents  are  better  given  in  solid  form  than  in  a 
drench,  powders  do  not  harmonise  well  with  the  ordinary 
food  of  the  ox,  and  would  probably  pass  directly  into  the 
huge  mass  of  masticated  matter  in  the  torpid  rumen  of  the 
diseased  animal. 

Enemas  (injections,  clysters,  or  glysters)  may  be  either 
gaseous  or  liquid.  The  former,  as  tobacco  smoke,  &c., 
are  well  worthy  of  more  frequent  trial.  They  are  easily 
administrable,  and  prove  local  sedatives  in  enteritic  dis- 
orders. They  are  administered  with  an  enema  tube  con- 
nected by  a  long  flexible  pipe  with  a  vessel  in  which 
tobacco  is  burnt.  Liquid  enemas  are  administered  to 
produce  either  local  or  general  effect.  In  the  latter  case 
they  form  the  vehicle  of  such  agents  as  are  most  readily 
absorbed  from  the  large  intestines  such  as  strychnia. 
Locally,  they  act  as  fomentations,  demulcents,  and  laxa- 


FiG.  9. — Application  of  steam  to  the  nostrils.     (Armatage.) 

tive  means.      In  the  latter  respect  they  are  most  useful. 


76  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

softening  any  faecal  accumulations^  and  arousing  peristalsis 
in  a  simple  but  effectual  manner.  They  should  be  admin- 
istered in  such  quantity  that  they  will  be  retained  for 
some  time,  and  may  be  injected  by  means  of  the  enema 
syringe,  Reid^s  pump,  or  the  gravitation  funnel. 

Inhalations  of  chloroform,  steam,  chlorine,  and  carbolic 
acid  are  used  in  cattle  practice,  the  first  has  been  noticed 
as  anaesthetic.  Chlorine,  under  the  form  of  Yapor  Chlori,  is 
generated  in  a  loose  box  or  stable,  into  which  are  collected 
calves  suffering  from  bronchitis  parasitica.      It  acts  as  a 


Fig.  10. — Method  of  covering  the  nostrils  for  steaming.     (Armatage.) 

very  powerful  irritant,  gives  rise  to  distressing  cough, 
and  expulsion  of  numbers  of  the  strongyles  which  cause 
the  disorder.  Yapor  Acidi  Carbolici  is  generated  for 
internal  disinfection  by  pouring  some  of  the  Calvert^s 
acid  into  a  pan  resting  on  a  tripod,  a  box  in  the  bottom 
of  the  pan  holding  a  red  hot  flat  iron  heater.  The  box 
and  the  animals  become  thoroughly  disinfected,  but  the 
beneficial  effects  have  not  been  proved  as  far  as  internal 
disinfection  is  concerned. 

The  thickness  of  the  skin  of  the  ox  prevents  frequent 
taking  up  of  medicinal  matters  into  the  system  after  in- 
unction. Intra-venous  injection  is  sometimes  practised,  as 
also  is  the  absorption  of  medicines  from  an  abraded  sur- 
face,   but  administration  of  agents  by  the  skin  may  best 


INTEODUCTJON.  77 

be  by  suhcutaneous  injection.  The  syringe  for  this  pur- 
pose (see  Fig.  11)  is  small,  and  can  conveniently  be 
carried  in  the  pocket ;  has  its  barrel  graduated^  and  made 


Fig.  11. — Hypodermic  Syringe.     (Armatage.) 

of  glass ;  generally  has  a  handle  to  its  piston,  every  complete 
turn  of  which  expels  a  known  quantity  of  the  contents,  and 
a  nozzle  shaped  like  a  trocar  with  a  side  opening  of  exit. 
The  puncture  is  scarcely  noticed  by  the  animal,  and 
should  preferably  be  made  where  the  subcutaneous  areolar 
tissue  is  plentiful  and  the  skin  thin.  By  this  means  ex- 
tremely small  doses  of  very  potent  agents  may  be  given 
with  certainty.  We  must  conclude,  then,  that  methods  of 
administration  to  the  ox  are  seldom  other  than  by  drench. 

M.  Tahorin  estimates  the  dose  for  the  ox  to  average  |ths 
that  requisite  for  the  horse,  but  specific  differences  be- 
tween the  animals,  as  far  as  the  actions  of  different  agents 
go,  render  this  useful  conclusion  not  always  reliable.  He . 
also  reckons  the  ox^s  dose  three  times  as  large  as  that  for 
the  sheep.    • 

Hertwig  suggests  for  an  animal  aged  one  to  two  years 
half  a  dose,  six  months  to  one  year  one  quarter,  three  to 
six  months  one  eighth,  and  one  to  three  months  one 
sixteenth.  Pregnancy  and  lactation  and  other  conditions 
also  influence  the  dose,  and  we  must  remember  that 
many  agents  administered  to  the  cow  pass  off  by  the 
milk  and  affect  the  calf. 

It  is  thought  that  all  '^  agents  which  produce  their 
effects  upon  remote  parts  of  the  system  must  be  absorbed 
and  added  to  the  blood.''  The  phenomena  of  certain 
cases  of  poisoning  hardly  enable  us  to  accept  this  dictum 
unreservedly.     When  very  large  doses  have  been  taken 


78 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


deatli  completely  and  immediately  occurs,,  seemingly 
similar  in  its  characters  to  that  which  has  been  seen  to 
result  from  a  blow  on  the  epigastrium.  These  observa- 
tions on  poisoning  in  man  apply  to  animal  poisoning,  but 
this  ''  death  by  shock  ^^  is  quite  the  exception.  When 
agents  enter  the  blood  they  circulate  in  its  current  and 
act  upon  various  organs.  Accordingly  they  are  divided 
into  haematics,  neurotics,  eliminatives,  and  astringents. 


Fig.  12. — Clyster  Syringe,  with  elastic  tube  and  ebony  pipe  ;  used  also  as  a 
stomach-pump. 


INTRODUCTION. 


79 


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80 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


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INTRODUCTION. 


81 


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82 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


/v»     ii     ""     >-i     M  OIJ    H 


INTRODUCTION. 


83 


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84 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


INTRODUCTION.  85 

Besides  the  agents  administered  medicinally,  certain 
drugs  gain  a  place  in  the  Pharmacopoeia  as  constituting 
useful  and  convenient  means  of  giving  bulk  to  remedies, 
whether  for  internal  or  external  use.      Such  are — 

ExcipientSy  as  common  mass,  formed  of  equal  parts  of 
linseed  meal  and  treacle  thoroughly  intermingled.  Gly- 
cerine and  linseed  meal,  or  soft  soap,  vaseline  or  lard 
are  used  for  this  purpose ;  but  agents  of  this  kind  are  not 
used  much  for  the  ox,  as 

Vehicles,  fluid  media,  are  more  frequently  considered 
necessary.  Water  is  the  most  common,  the  active  sub- 
stances being  either  dissolved  or  suspended  in  it.  Gruel 
is  also  very  useful  for  this  purpose,  and  in  many  cases  the 
medicines  may  be  given  in  beer. 

The  application  of  boiling  wafer,  as  mentioned  above,  to 
the  sides  or  other  parts  of  an  animal,  must  be  effected  by 
dipping  a  blanket  in  the  water  and  keeping  it  held  up  against 
the  part  from  each  side.  As  soon  as  it  begins  to  cool,  more 
boiling  water  is  baled  into  it,  and  the  process  is  thus  con- 
tinued for  half-an-hour  or  upwards.  Then  to  the  surface  a 
little  stimulating  liniment  may  be  applied  to  keep  up  the 
excitation  and  prevent  a  relapse.  Considerable  serous 
effusion  into  the  subcutaneous  areolar  tissue  will  result. 
This  is  a  most  valuable  means  of  external  stimulation. 

Blistering  should  be  performed  by  removal  of  the  hair 
from  the  part  by  means  of  scissors  or  the  clipper,  and  well 
rubbing  in  the  ointment  for  about  ten  minutes.  The  action 
of  the  agent  seldom  runs  too  high,  but  in  such  a  case  the 
removal  of  any  remains  of  the  blister  is  called  for,  and 
alkaline  or  anodyne  lotions  must  subsequently  be  applied. 
Occasionally  too  extensive  application  leads  to  absorption 
of  the  vesicant  and  constitutional  symptoms  of  its  medi- 
cinal or  poisonous  action. 

Fomentations  must  be  continuously  applied,  of  uniform 
temperature,  as  much  as  possible,  and  when  necessary 
may  be  medicated. 

Poultices  or  cataplasmata  must  be  of  soft  consistence, 
moist,  but  not  too  watery — generally  are  made  with  lin- 
seed meal  and  bran.      Boiled  turnips  are  sometimes  used 


86  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

for  this  purpose.  Several  special  cataplasms  are  used : 
Cat.  Fermenti  and  Cat.  Carbonis.  The  substance  known  as 
spongio'piline  retains  moisture  well,  and  has  all  the  bene- 
ficial influence  of  a  poultice  when  properly  applied. 

Disinfection  after  the  outbreak  of  a  contagious  disorder 
in  a  cowhouse  should  comprise  removal  of  animals  from 
the  house  and  their  quarantine  until  after  the  termination 
of  the  period  of  incubation  of  the  disorder,  strict  super- 
vision being  resorted  to,  and  sometimes  internal  disin- 
fection. Special  attendants  should  be  told  off  to  diseased 
animals,  and  not  be  allowed  to  approach  healthy  ones 
except  after  thorough  disinfection ;  destruction  by  burn- 
ing of  bedding  and  minor  appliances  such  as  are  inex- 
pensive and  easily  replaceable ;  thorough  scraping,  scalding, 
and  disinfection  of  walls,  partitions  between  stalls,  and 
major  utensils.  The  drains  should  be  sluiced  out  with 
bucketfuls  of  water  and  carbolic  acid  (1 — 40).  The  walls 
should  be  limewashed,  each  pail  of  the  wash  containing 
half-a-pint  of  crude  carbolic  acid.  If  the  flooring  is  of  round 
flints,  these  should  be  taken  up,  and  the  sub-soil  removed. 
This  soil  frequently  harbours  contagia.  Then  the  doors 
and  windows  should  be  thrown  open,  and  the  place 
remain  thus  exposed  for  about  a  fortnight,  and,  if  pos- 
sible cattle  not  be  readmitted  under  six  weeks.  When 
animals  must  remain  in  the  house,  chlorinated  lime  may 
be  sprinkled  about  the  floor  after  it  has  been  thoroughly 
cleansed,  and  also  thrown  down  the  drains,  or  cloths 
dipped  in  solution  of  carbolic  acid  may  be  hung  up  in  the 
place,  or  the  carbolic  fumigation  may  be  resorted  to. 
Thorough  cleanliness  and  ventilation  must  also  be  secured. 

It  remains  for  us  to  describe  two  surgical  means  of 
treatment  of  great  value  in  cattle  practice : 

Bloodletting — venesection,  or  phlebotomy — is  performed 
at  the  superficial  jugular.  This  vessel  is  very  large,  and 
is  compressed  by  means  of  a  cord  tied  round  the  neck  at 
the  posterior  part.  The  knot  must  be  of  a  special  kind, 
such  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  12,  that  it  maybe  easily  loosened 
when  it  is  considered  advisable  to  check  the  flow  of  escaping 
blood.  The  fleam,  or  lancet,  must  have  a  large  blade,  and  be 


INTRODUCTION. 


87 


sharp  and  in  g'ood  condition,  that  it  may  penetrate  the 
thick  hide  freely.      The   animal  having  been  duly  secured 


Fig.  12. — Ox  prepared  for  bleeding.     The  place  at  which  the  vein  is  opened 
indicated  by  the  mark  (a)  at  the  lower  portion  of  the  neck.  (Armatage.) 

by  an  attendant,  and  the  cord  fastened,  the  head  is  some- 
what flexed  to  the  side    opposite   the  seat  of  operation. 


Fig.  13. — Bleeding  fleam. 

The  operator  places  the  instrument  longitudinally  to  the 
course  of  the  distended  vein,  and  inserts  by  a  single  stroke. 
When  a  sufficient  amount  has  been  removed,  as  indicated 
by  the  state  of  the  pulse,  in  accordance  with  the  condition 
of  the  animal,  the  cord  should  be  removed,  and  the  wound 
closed  by  means  of  a  pin  suture  retained  by  a  strand  of 
tow  wrapped  round  in  a  figure  of  eight  manner.  Bleeding 
produces  a  sudden  and  powerful  impression  on  the  nervous 
system    of    a    sedative    nature,    seriously   debilitates    the 


88  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

animal,  and  its  effects  last  for  some  time.  The  blood 
pressure  is  not  affected  long  after  cessation  of  the  opera- 
tion,  for  fluid  matters  are  rapidly  absorbed  from  the 
tissues  to  keep  up  the  due  bulk  of  the  blood.  It  very 
seriously  diminishes  the  number  of  red  corpuscles  present, 
but  increases  the  amount  of  fibrin  in  the  blood.  This 
means  is  seldom  called  for  except  in  relief  of  acute  con- 
gestions which  threaten  to  bring  about  speedy  death. 
Local  bleedings  by  scarifications  and  opening  of  vessels  is 
seldom  resorted  to  in  treatment  of  cattle.  The  temporal 
artery  has  sometimes  been  opened  in  attempt  to  relieve 
congestion  of  the  brain,  but  the  vessel  is  difficult  of  access. 
The  cephalic,  saphena,  and  superficial  abdominal  veins  are 
sometimes  opened. 

Setons  produce  long-continued  and  considerable  inflam- 
mation, resulting  in  suppuration.  They  may  be  inserted  by 
means  of  the  ordinary  seton  needle,  which  can  be  removed 
from  the  handle,  or  by  a  fixed  needle  which  has  the  eye 
near  the  point  (see  Fig.  14),  it  is  threaded  after  insertion, 
and  then  withdrawn.  The  dewlap  is  the  general  seat  of  this 
operation,  but  setons  may  be  introduced  into  other  parts,  as 
through  fistulas,  &c.  They  are  usually  inserted  transversely 
through  the  dewlap,  and  may  be  simple  or  medicated  with 
blistering  ointment  or  turpentine  solution  of  croton. 


Fig.  14. — Seton  needle  with  fixed  handle. 


DISEASES   OFJCHfirrifeQOa^^  89 


CHAPTER  II.— DISEASES  OF  THE  BLOOD. 

Section  1. — Non-specific  Abnormal  Conditions. 

The  blood  of  the  ox  forms  only  ^^^th  of  the  weight  of  his 
body,  that  of  the  horse  being  estimated  at  jgth.  Its  red 
corpuscles  are  larger  (ox_,  j^  mm. ;  horse,  yjy  mm.),  and 
form  a  greater  portion  of  the  bulk  of  the  blood,  but  do 
not  exhibit  such  a  marked  tendency  to  aggregate  into  rou- 
leaux as  is  observable  in  the  horse.  The  blood  does  not, 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  give  a  buffy  coat  on  coagula- 
tion. Fibrin-forming  materials  and  fat  are  present  in  larger 
quantity,  water,  albumen,  and  salines  being  less  plentiful. 
(See  CoLiN^s  ^Traitede Physiologic Comparee  desAnimaux.^) 
The  vital  fluid  must  be  considered  as  a  tissue,  the  red 
corpuscles    constituting    its    essential    elements.       These, 


® 


Fig.  15.— Red  blood-globules, 
from  the  nature  of  their  duties  as  oxygen  bearers,  must 
occur  in  a  fluid  medium,  such  as  is  the  Liquor  Sanguinis. 
This  Liquor  Sanguinis  consists  of  an  albuminous  solution 
of  salines  of  a  most  varied  character,  sufficing  for  the 
supply  of  every  requisite  to  any  tissue  in  the  body.  Be- 
sides the  red  corpuscles,  colourless  bodies  or  leucocytes  are 
found.  They  are  independent  cell-like  bodies  capable  of 
spontaneous  motion,  and  of  deriving  their  support  from  the 
surrounding  fluid.      They  become  converted  into  the  red 


90  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

corpuscles  in  all  probability,  and  in  addition  have  been 
found  to  migrate  through  the  walls  of  the  capillaries  into 
the  interspaces  between  the  cells  of  which  the  tissues  are 
composed ;  whether  or  not  they  thus  nourish  the  tissues  is 
unknown.  The  blood  of  the  ox  has  a  specific  gravity  of 
1060,  and  gives  off  a  characteristic  milky  odour  when 
fresh,  or  when  a  little  sulphuric  acid  is  added  to  it.  The 
blood  being  circulated  through  the  blood-vessels,  mainly 
by  the  action  of  the  heart,  requires  for  its  proper  functional 
activity  due  bulk  and  viscidity  and  a  proper  chemical 
composition.  It  must  consist  of  the  right  constituents  in 
the  right  proportions.  It  may  be  excessively  poor  or  rich 
according  to  the  conditions  of  its  nutritive  supply.  It 
may  be  irregularly  distributed  through  the  vessels  as  in 
congestion  with  variations  in  rapidity  of  flow,  and  perhaps 
of  tissue  interchanges.  It  is  these  latter  which  most 
materially  affect  the  composition  of  the  blood.  Every 
tissue  of  the  body  bears  during  health  the  relation  of  an 
excretory  organ  to.  every  other  part ;  by  the  combined 
action  of  all  the  blood  should  be  kept  in  a  proper  condi- 
tion, its  nutritive  supplies  being  especially  important. 
The  excretory  organs  proper  have  especially  the  duty  of 
removing  impurities  ;  if  one  of  them  acts  imperfectly  the 
rest  may  endeavour  to  atone  for  its  deficiencies  by  vicarious 
action,  but  they  do  not  always  do  so  successfully.  Thus, 
uraemic  and  jaundice  cases  occur.  Sometimes  poisons, 
whether  specific  or  ordinary,  gain  entry  from  without  and 
cause  serious  disorder.  The  blood  being  a  generally 
diffused  tissue,  we  must  look  for  general  symptoms  during 
its  disorders ;  there  v/ill  be  an  indefiniteness  and  want  of 
localisation  about  them  which  to  the  unscientific  man  will 
make  them  seem  most  obscure ;  but  we,  armed  with  our 
full  list  of  haematics  and  eliminatives,  view  them  with  more 
confidence.  While  the  causes  of  blood  disorders  often  lie 
in  defective  nutrition  or  elimination,  or  in  the  addition  of 
poisonous  matter  from  without,  not  unfrequently  may 
diseases  of  this  generally  diffused  tissue  be  found  due  to 
extension  of  disorder  from  some  of  the  tissues  through 
which  it  rushes  in  its  circulatory  course.      Thus  may  be 


DISEASES   OF    THE    BLOOD.  91 

accounted  for  tlie  frequency  of  symptomatic  fever  consti- 
tuting general  disorder  as  a  result  of  local  inflammation. 
While  the  tendency  to  this  and  other  fevers  is  not  very 
marked  in  the  ox^  the  liability  to  specific  blood  poisons  is 
considerable,  and  we  shall  have  to  treat  of  many  special 
disorders  which  devastate  our  herds  and  have  proved  the 
scourge  of  the  agriculturist  from  time  immemorial.  The 
relatively  small  amount  of  blood  of  the  ox  and  the  larger 
size  of  the  red  globules  may  be,  perhaps,  considered  the 
cause  of  the  immunity  from  general  fever  and  from  inflam- 
mation leading  to  ill  effects  after  major  operations,  which  is 
observable  in  bovine  practice  as  compared  with  equine. 
At  the  same  time  we  must  remember,  too,  that  some  parts 
of  the  body,  as  the  alimentary  canal,  receive  a  great  deal 
of  blood,  and  that  the  venous  system  is  remarkable  for  its 
largeness  as  compared  with  the  arterial. 

A.  Nutritive  Excess. — Hypeeteophy  op  the  Blood  (Wat- 
son), Plethoea — vulgarly  known  as  Fulness  of  Blood — 
results  from  high  activity  of  the  blood-forming  organs, 
whereby  the  blood  becomes  loaded  with  red  and  white 
corpuscles.  This  condition  is  denoted  by  redness  of 
visible  mucous  membranes  with  a  tendency  to  active 
haemorrhages,  a  full,  bounding  pulse,  high  constitu- 
tional vigour,  and  tendency  to  thrive  and  lay  on  fat. 
Such  a  state  of  the  body  as  this  can  not  be  considered 
disease,  but  predisposition  to  apoplectic  and  acute  inflam- 
matory affections.  We  are  familiar  with  the  frequency 
of  black  quarter  in  yearling  calves  in  a  highly  plethoric 
condition.  The  causes  of  plethora  are  excess  of  food, 
vigour  to  appropriate  nutritive  matters,  and  insufficient 
exercise  to  bring  about  a  demand  for  fresh  material  pro- 
portioned to  the  supply.  Treatment  must  therefore  con- 
sist in  urgent  cases  in  abstraction  of  blood,  whereby 
plethora  is  at  once  relieved ;  in  gradual  reduction  of 
diet,  exhibition  of  laxatives,  and  giving  the  animal  a  wide 
and  not  too  rich  pasture  to  graze  over.  It  is  the  custom 
to  insert  a  seton  in  the  dewlap  that  the  resulting  suppura- 
tion may  drain  away  the  precursors  of  the  red  corpuscles. 
This  certainly  lessens  the  predispositions  above  mentioned. 


92  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

When  growth  ceases  to  draw  largely  upon  nutritive 
supplies  plethora  often  occurs,,  and  a  somewhat  similar 
throwing  back  of  blood  on  the  system  takes  place  at 
parturition,  to  be  relieved  by  lactation. 

B.  Nutritive  Deficiency. — Atrophy  op  the  Blood,  ANiE- 
MiA,  debility,  poverty  of  the  blood.  The  principal  additions 
to  the  blood  occur  from  the  alimentary  canal,  any  impediment 
to  this  source  of  supply  gives  rise  to  anaemia.  Imperfect 
performance  of  subsidiary  or  principal  digestive  functions, 
defective  absorption,  imperfect  assimilation,  or  insufficient 
or  improper  alimentary  matter  and  excessive  removal 
of  material  from  the  blood  will  cause  debility,  hence  it 
results  from  fluxes,  persistent  hasmorrhages,  &c. 

Symptoms,  general  deficiency  in  vital  energy,  excita- 
bility and  languor,  often  inappetence  and  tendency  to 
indigestion.  Pulse  feeble,  frequent,  and  irregular ;  heart's 
action  liable  to  extreme  irregularity  of  beat.  Mucous 
membranes  very  pale.  Coldness  of  the  extremities  and  a 
peculiar  sound  audible  over  the  larger  veins,  "venous 
murmurs.^'  Rapid  wasting,  and  frequently  the  patient  is 
found  to  be  covered  with  lice.  Often  this  disorder  is  due 
to  scrofulous  tumours  internally,  or  to  some  specific  disorder 
which  has  interfered  with  the  nutritive  properties  of  the 
blood.  The  essential  morbid  lesion  consists  in  deficiency  of 
blood-corpuscles.  It  has  been  supposed  that  this  results  from 
an  abnormally  watery  state  of  the  serum  whereby  the  red 
globules  absorb  moisture  in  excess  and  disintegrate.  This 
may  be  so,  but  we  are  inclined  in  the  generality  of  cases,  to 
consider  the  excess  of  water  rather  the  result  of  the  fact  that 
the  few  red  corpuscles  do  not  suffice  to  stimulate  suffi- 
ciently the  water  removing  organs,  kidneys,  and  skin, 
consequently  the  urine  is  scanty,  and  the  skin  dry  and 
tight  on  the  emaciated  body.  Sometimes  the  excess  of 
water  in  the  blood  causes  dropsical  effusions  either  into 
serous  and  synovial  cavities  or  into  the  subcutaneous  areolar 
tissue.  Death  may  result  either  from  lungs  or  other  parts 
becoming  the  seat  of  congestion,  or  in  the  manner  which  we 
have  already  described,  as  death  from  anasmia.  It  is 
generally  preceded  by  diarrhoea  of  an  exhausting  character. 


DISEASES    OF    THE    BLOOD.  "         93 

This  state  predisposes  to  certain  disorders^  especially  those 
of  a  low  type  and  a  specific  character ;  even  small  wounds 
of  anaemic  patients  may  assume  an  ulcerative  character  and 
be  very  obstinate.  Operations  are  often  followed  by  ill  effects. 

Pasturage  on  heath  lands  where  the  herbage  has  an 
astringent  character  and  is  unnutritious,  also  feeding  upon 
turnips  which  contain  excess  of  watery  material,  may  be 
enumerated  as  special  causes.  Treatment  must  be  directed 
to  removal  of  all  causes  which  can  possibly  be  in  opera- 
tion, by  thorough  change  of  diet  and  most  careful  nursing. 
The  transition  to  good  food  must  not  be  too  sudden,  and 
generally  the  administration  of  a  laxative  dose  will  rouse 
the  bowels  into  activity,  and  remove  any  accumulation  of 
unnutritious  matter  from  them.  Salt  sprinkled  over 
the  fodder  will  make  it  more  palatable.  Tonics  should  be 
administered,  generally  a  combination  of  iron  and  gentian 
will  be  found  useful.  Heematinic  compounds  are  especially 
indicated,  but  care  must  be  taken  lest  too  large  doses  be 
giveti  at  first.  Under  such  treatment  the  animal  will 
generally  be  restored  to  health,  but  some  cases,  where  the 
ansemia  is  due  to  specific  conditions,  are  incurable. 

The  state  of  the  system  produced  by  the  ravages  of  the 
liver  fluke,  Fasciola  hepatica,  known  technically  as  ^^  Ca- 
chexia Aquosa  Verminosa,^''  must  be  mentioned  here  as 
consisting  in  a  true  ansemia.  The  early  action  of  these 
parasites,  when  they  are  but  few  and  scattered  in  the  bile 
ducts  throughout  the  extent  of  the  liver,  is  one  of  stimula- 
tion of  that  organ,  whereby  its  glycogenic  and  bile  pro- 
ducing powers  are  increased,  the  effect  on  nutrition  being 
favorable.  As  these  organisms  increase  in  number  they 
cause  thickening  of  the  walls  of  the  ducts  and  dilatation 
of  their  passages ;  this  is  at  the  expense  of  the  true  liver 
substance,  and  bile  production  is  thus  impeded,  the  ducts 
become  filled  with  parasites  and  a  viscid  bile.  Generally 
at  this  stage  the  constitutional  power  of  the  animal 
enables  it  to  withstand  this  interference  with  the  produc- 
tion of  bile  and  grape  sugar.  But  this  is  not  always  so, 
for  in  some  years  the  parasites  are  so  plentiful,  and  so 
thoroughly  invade   the  liver  substance,  as  to  give  rise  to 


94 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


the  above-mentioned  symptoms  of  anaemia, and  ultimately  to 
death.   Such  outbreaks  occur  after  extraordinarily  wet  sea- 


Fig.  16. — Fasciola    he- 

Fig.  17. 

— Disto- 

Fig 

.18.- 

-Amphistoma 

coni- 

patica,    the    common 

ma    lanceola- 

cum. 

liver  fluke,  a.,  h.,  and 

tum. 

c,  its  alimentary  ap- 

paratus. 

CertRin  flukes. 

rrematodes, 

found  in 

the  ox 

(after  Cohhold). 

sons,  when  meadows  have  been  flooded,  and  flocks  are  being 
decimated  by  '^  rot.^'  Usually  they  may  be  seen  about  at 
Christmas  time  or  in  the  early  spring.  The  collateral 
conditions  of  the  case,  together  with  a  yellowness  of  the 
visible  mucous  membranes,  will  enable  us  to  diagnose  such 
cases  from  those  of  simple  anaemia. 

Our  efforts  must  be  directed  to  support  of  the  strength 
of  the  patients  by  the  above-mentioned  means.  Iron  and 
salt  are  very  useful  as  being  anthelmintics.  Good  oil  cake 
is  especially  called  for.  Prophylaxis  must  be  observed  in 
wet  seasons,  and  consist  of  measures  based  on  our  know- 
ledge of  the  life-history  of  the  fasciola.  The  larval  forms 
abound  in  meadows  (generally  low-lying,  and  well  known 
to  shepherds)  during  the  later  months  of  summer  or  the 
earlier  of  autumn,  according  to  the  season.  At  these 
times  young  or  debilitated  stock  should  not  be  turned  out 
to  pasture  in  such  meadows,  or,  if  circumstances  render 


DISEASES    OP   THE    BLOOD.  95 

ttis  a  necessity,  they  should  receive  a  fair  allowance  of 
salt.  The  parasite  which  produces  this  disorder  is  that 
which  causes  '^  rot  '^  in  sheep. 

Science  tells  us  that  more  careful  destruction  of  faeces 
containing  myriads  of  ova  of  this  parasite,  whether  of  cattle 
or  sheep  affected,  would  be  beneficial.  A  more  widely 
diffused  knowledge  of  the  relations  of  diseases  as  they  occur 
among  his  live  stock  is  essential  for  the  agriculturist. 

Post-mortem  Examination  of  a  case  of  anaemia,  while 
often  disclosing  the  special  cause,  invariably  shows  a 
bloodless  condition  of  the  tissues,  absence  of  fat,  which  is 
replaced  by  gelatinous  areolar  tissue,  muscles  small  and 
very  pale,  blood  forms  a  white  clot,  often  before  removal 
from  the  larger  blood-vessels,  frequently  ante-mortem 
clots,  which  have  complicated  the  case  during  life,  may  be 
observed  in  the  heart;  they  are  supposed  to  result  from 
the  uneven  internal  surface  of  the  heart,  whipping  up  the 
abnormally  fluid  blood.  Is  the  flesh  fit  for  human  food  ? 
In  a  case  of  extreme  anaemia,  such  as  has  resulted  in 
death,  we  cannot  hesitate  to  reject  it.  It  probably  has 
distributed  through  it  deleterious  matter  accumulated 
from  defective  excretion;  these  have  not  been  proved 
injurious  to  man  but  certainly  are  not  beneficial,  and  the 
flesh  is  devoid  of  nutritive  matter,  so  cannot  prove  a 
loss  of  valuable  food  material. 

c.  Nutrition  Perverted. — Pyeexia,  Fevee,  inflammation 
of  the  blood.  We  have  adopted  this  pathology  of 
fever  after  due  consideration,  for  it  seems  to  us  that 
all  the  phenomena  of  fever  may  be  traced  to  perverted 
nutritive  conditions  of  the  blood.  This  state  may 
originate  in  itself  as  simple  fever ,  or  by  extension  of  inflam- 
tion  from  some  of  the  tissues  through  which  the  blood  cir- 
culates, constituting  sympathetic  or  symptomatic  fever.  It 
has  been  debated  whether  simple  fever  occurs  in  the  lower 
animals,  but  we  cannot  doubt  that  it  does,  and  under  this 
heading  maybe  classified  those  cases  which  exhibit  an  in- 
definiteness  of  symptoms,  an  absence  of  diagnostic  signs. 

Symptoms, — The  attack  commences  with  a  shivering 
fit   and   general   signs  of    disorder.      Pulse  quick,  rather 


96  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

hard,  and  often  exhibiting  a  tendency  to  dicrotism.  Mucous 
membranes  injected.  Warmth  of  extremities,  mouth,  and 
general  surface  of  the  body,  with  a  dryness  of  the  skin. 
Respirations  slightly  increased  in  frequency.  Excretions 
deficient,  hence  mouth  dry,  bowels  torpid,  and  urine 
scanty  and  high  coloured.  Secretion  of  milk  lessened. 
Irritability  of  the  animal  is  generally  present.  Internal 
temperature  elevated.  Thirst  considerable.  As  the  case 
progresses  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  different  organs  of 
the  body  to  become  involved  in  the  disorder.  The  lungs, 
as  being  most  concerned  in  alterations  of  the  composition 
of  the  blood,  are  liable  to  become  the  seat  of  congestion. 
The  bowels  may  also  become  affected  or  the  liver,  and, 
in  a  less  degree,  other  parts  of  the  body.  Thus,  we  often 
find  that  cases  which  originate  as  fever  pure  culminate  in 
acute  infiammation  of  some  important  vital  organ.  The 
blood  has  its  fibrin-formers  increased,  and  also  its  amount 
of  fat,  while  the  globules  (generally)  and  the  albumen 
and  salines  are  diminished.  The  urine  owes  its  high 
colour  probably  to  the  rapid  disintegration  of  red 
corpuscles,  increased  specific  gravity  to  deficiency  of 
water  and  organic  salines  and  increase  of  extractives, 
hippurates,  &c.  Gant  thus  expresses  his  views  of  the 
cause  of  one  important  change  in  the  blood,  "the  flotilla 
of  oxygen-laden  cells  perishes  seriatim  from  overpressed 
service,  and  their  wrecks  are  converted  into  fibrin.^' 
Such  is  the  peculiar  character  of  the  blood-tissue  that 
it  can  not  exhibit  the  ordinary  characters  and  changes  of 
inflammation.  It  is  non-vascular,  yet  more  highly  nourished 
than  any  other,  hence  the  changes  must  be  manifested 
only  in  the  tissue  elements.  These,  the  red  globules, 
have  their  functions  perverted,  they  no  longer  convey 
oxygen  satisfactorily  to  the  tissues  to  stimulate  them  to 
action,  the  energy  of  oxidation  expends  itself  in  the 
breaking  up  of  the  globules.  Diminution  of  globules 
takes  place,  proper  nutritive  interchanges  between  the 
blood  and  the  tissues  not  occurring,  the  fluid  becomes 
overloaded  with  impurities,  and  so  causes  disease  of  other 
organs,  the  lungs   being  especially  unwilling  to  allow  the 


DISEASES   OF    THE    BLOOD.  97 

passage  of  impure  blood.  Sometimes  a  crisis  occurs,  one 
or  more  of  tlie  excretory  organs  (bowels,  liver,  and  skin) 
overcomes  all  difficulties  by  its  inherent  energies,  removes 
impurities,  and  so  relieves  the  blood.  Eesolution  then 
occurs  unless  a  relapse  checks  the  salutary  process.  In 
declining  fever  a  lateritious  sediment  frequently  may  be 
found  in  urine.  Fever  may  be  caused  by  any  conditions 
which  interfere  with  due  removal  of  matter  from  the 
blood.  Thus,  close  and  ill- ventilated  houses,  want  of  exer- 
cise, and  excessive  feeding  all  predispose  to  the  disorder, 
while  sudden  changes  of  temperature,  long  journeys, 
exposure  to  draughts  or  to  severe  weather  prove  exciting 
agencies.  Acute  inflammation  of  internal  organs,  or  of 
any  other  part  of  the  body,  the  presence  of  poisonous 
material,  whether  ordinary  or  specific,  in  the  blood,  and 
defective  action  of  eliminatory  organs  are  causes  of 
the  symptomatic  affection,  which  is  more  frequent  than 
the  simple  form.  Thus,  in  our  examination  of  many 
disorders  we  shall  have  to  allude  to  complicating  febrile 
conditions,  such  as  those  which  have  just  received  notice 
from  us.  It  is  remarkable  that  frequently  fevers  abate  some- 
what towards  mid-day.  Again,  they  may  re-appear  periodi- 
cally, when  they  are  termed  intermittent,  and  generally 
are  due  to  special  organisms  in  the  blood,  the  periodic 
activity  of  which  accounts  for  regularity  of  recurrence  of 
the  disorder.  Thus,  ague  in  man  is  due  to  Spirochgete, 
which  is  supposed  to  be  a  bacterian  organism,  and  certain 
intermittent  disorders  affecting  the  ox  have  been  described 
as  occurring  in  low  districts  which  probably  are  attribu- 
table to  a  similar  cause. 

In  the  treatment  of  febrile  affections  nursing  must 
be  resorted  to  with  assiduity,  the  skin  especially  being 
roused  into  activity  by  frictions.  Stimulants,  particularly 
such  as  act  upon  the  excretory  organs,  as  nitrous  ether, 
may  be  used  with  benefit.  The  bowels  may  be  acted 
upon  by  a  saline  laxative.  The  stimulants  check  any 
tendency  to  local  disorder  by  equable  diffusion  of  blood 
and  nervous  energy.  The  beneficial  effects  of  fresh  air 
must   not   be  neglected   in   symptomatic   cases.      Though 


98  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

the  impurities  accumulated  in  the  blood  as  a  result  of 
defective  excretion  in  fever  are  not  known  to  act  delete- 
riously  on  man  when  the  flesh  is  injested  after  cooking, 
we  should  when  possible  prevent  such  meat  from  passing 
into  the  market.  The  general  custom  is  to  destroy  the 
animal  when  recovery  seems  hopeless,  and  to  have  it 
dressed  for  the  public ;  any  parts  which  exhibit  signs 
of  disease  being  rejected. 

NECRiEMiA  is  the  term  which  has  been  applied  to  death 
of  the  blood  en  masses  such  as  occurs  in  black  quarter  and 
certain  other  blood  diseases.  It  may  be  observed  in  cases 
of  death  resulting  from  a  sudden  and  powerful  alteratioii 
in  vital  conditions,  as  is  seen  in  animals  struck  by  light- 
ning. Probably  the  other  tissue  elements  of  the  body, 
especially  the  nervous,  are  also  affected  in  this  case,  for 
they,  like  the  blood,  exhibit  imperfect  tendency  to  congela- 
tion, and  rapidly  commence  to  putrefy.  The  non-coagulation 
of  the  blood  is  not  present  in  every  case,  but  this  fluid  is 
always  dark  in  colour,  and  any  clot  which  forms  is  deficient 
in  firmness  and  permanence.  Such  cases  never  call  for 
treatment,  but  not  unfrequently  for  determination  of  the 
cause  of  death.  Collateral  circumstances  must  be  care- 
fully considered,  and  the  surface  of  the  body  examined  for 
local  discoloration  or  singeing ;  but  it  is  quite  certain 
that  death  may  occur  in  this  manner  without  any  injury 
to  the  surface.  A  lightning  shock  may  cause  injury  short 
of  death,  as  paralysis  of  a  part.  After  such  injuries  the 
principal  indication  is  to  avoid  collapse  by  means  of 
stimulant  agents. 

D.  Variations  in  Constitution.  (a)  Increase  or  de- 
crease of  normal  constituents. 

Having  already  dealt  with  such  diseased  conditions  as 
arise  from  irregularity  of  distribution  of  blood  in  the  circu- 
latory organs  constituting  the  phenomena  of  hyperaemia 
and  congestion,  we  may  now  examine  those  states  which 
result  from  variations  in  the  constituents  of  the  blood, 
whether  in  quality  or  in  quantity.  Increase  of  water, 
salines,  &c.,  may  occur  without  any  appreciable  influence 
upon   the   health   of  the   animal,   simply   causing   predis- 


DISEASES    OP   THE    BLOOD.  99 

position  to  disorder.  Such  is  the  case  when  excretory 
organs  act  inefficiently,  or  when  excessive  material  is 
added.  These  states  are,  therefore,  generally  purely  of  a 
secondary  character.  The  cause  being  removed  they  will 
cease.  Decrease  of  these  normal  constituents  may  be 
similarly  of  minor  importance.  We  have  seen  that  fibrin 
is  increased  in  fevers,  especially  those  due  to  considerable 
local  inflammation.  It  seems  this  is  associated  with  disin- 
tegration of  corpuscles ;  hence  we  find  products  of  a 
highly  plastic  character  generated  under  these  circum- 
stances. In  ansemia  the  fibrin  factors  are  deficient,  the 
blood  and  deposits  wanting  in  plasticity.  Though  occur- 
ring frequently  in  disease,  variations  of  amount  of  fibrin 
factors  have  not  been  proved  to  constitute  distinct 
disorder. 

Leucaemia,  oe  Leucocyth^mia,  results  from  excessive 
production  of  white  corpuscles  in  consequence  of  the 
activity  of  the  spleen,  lymphatic  glands,  and  medulla  of 
bone,  these  being  the  blood-making  organs.  The  spleen 
and  lymphatic  glands  undergo  enlargement  and  become 
altered  in  appearance.  The  white  globules  of  the  blood, 
instead  of  being  in  the  proportion  of  one  to  three  or  four 
hundred,  are  as  one  to  thirty  or  forty.  This  disease  has 
been  described  by  Siedamgrotzky  ('Veterinarian,^  1880, 
p.  159).  He  mentions  it  as  occurring  in  cattle,  females 
being  most  subject.  The  symptoms  are  those  of 
anaamia. 

The  red  corpuscles  we  have  seen  are  largely  increased 
in  plethora,  and  they  may  be  more  numerous  in  fevers  ; 
evidence  is  rather  uncertain  on  this  point.  This  simply 
gives  rise  to  increased  functional  energy ;  indeed,  in 
health  the  improvement  of  a  breed  and  high  feeding 
increase  the  number  of  these  elements.  *'  Free  exposure 
to  fresh  air  and  light  seems  also  to  powerfully  promote 
the  formation  of  red  blood  as  much  as  the  deprivation  of 
them  tends  to  destroy  it  "  (Jones).  From  this  we  deduce 
a  practical  indication  for  treatment  of  anasmia.  When 
the  destruction  of  red  corpuscles  predominates  over  their 
formation   poverty  of  the  blood   results.      Mercury  seems 


100  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

to  have  a  special  power  of  disintegrating  red  globules. 
Under  certain  circumstances  the  red  colouring  matter  be- 
comes dissolved  in  the  surrounding  serum,  which  stains 
the  walls  of  the  blood-vessels.  This  occurs,  more  or  less, 
in  all  cases  of  stasis  or  extravasation  of  red  corpuscles, 
but  especially  from  certain  chemical  changes  in  the 
serum,  as  admixture  of  bile  salts.  As  potash  and  phos- 
phates occur  particularly  in  the  corpuscles,  while  sodium 
and  chlorides  are  mainly  in  the  serum,  we  can  see  that 
various  foods  are  adapted  especially  for  the  formation  of 
special  parts  of  the  blood. 

(j3)  Eetention  of  matter  in  the  blood  which  should  be 
excreted. 

There  are  certain  organs  which  remove  effete  matter 
from  the  blood.  Of  these  the  principal  are  lungs,  liver, 
skin,  and  kidneys.  If  either  of  these  organs  act  im- 
perfectly,  and  the  others  are  unable  by  vicarious  action  to 
perform  its  duties  with  suflScient  energy,  accumulation 
of  effete  matter  leads  to  blood  disease. 

Carbonic  Anhydride  poisoning  results  from  defective 
action  of  the  lungs.  It  may  also  take  place  from  exposure 
to  an  atmosphere  containing  excess  of  this  gas,  as  the 
'^  choke  damp  ^'  generated  by  explosions  in  mines.  The 
fact  that  a  chronic  form,  as  it  were,  of  this  disorder 
results  from  imperfect  escape  of  foul  air  from  cow-houses 
must  make  us  attend  to  due  ventilation.  This  chronic 
state  predisposes  to  disease  of  a  low  type,  lessening  con- 
stitutional vigour.  Thus,  3  per  cent,  of  this  gas  in  the  air 
lessens  the  frequency  of  the  pulse  and  increases  the  respira- 
tions ;  1'5 — 2  per  cent,  suffices  to  produce  headache  in  man, 
and  fatal  results  ensue  on  exposure  to  air  containing  5 — 10 
per  cent.  The  severity  of  disorders  of  the  lungs  is  consider- 
ably increased  by  the  accumulation  of  carbonic  anhydride 
in  the  blood  which  results  from  them.  This  substance 
acts  as  a  narcotic  poison.  Acute  cases  of  carbonic  acid 
poisoning  are  manifested  by  laboured  breathing  and  other 
signs  of  narcosis,  ultimately  leading  to  death  from 
asthenia. 

Treatment   must   consist   in   exposure  to   fresh  air,  ad- 


DISEASES   OP   THE    BLOOD.  101 

ministration  of  stimulants  as  ammonia  and  artificial 
respiration.  On  examination  of  the  body  after  death,  the 
Innffs  are  found  cons^ested  and  the  blood  dark. 

Jaundice — Jcterus — is  accumulation  in  the  blood  of 
matters  which  should  be  removed  by  the  liver.  This 
seldom  causes  acute  diseases,  and  may  be  due  either  to 
non-elimination  in  consequence  of  structural  derangement 
of  the  organ  or  to  reabsorption  of  bile  in  consequence 
of  obstruction  to  its  escape  into  the  bowel.  The  bile 
constitutes  an  outlet  for  much  of  the  colouring  matter 
set  free  by  breaking  up  of  the  red  corpuscles,  also  for 
cholesterine  and  for  certain  bile  salts,  glycocholates,  and 
taurocholates.  When  these  salts  enter  the  bowel  they 
undergo  changes,  and  probably  become  reabsorbed  and 
utilised  for  respiratory  purposes,  as  they  contain  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  carbon  and  hydrogen.  But  if  intro- 
duced into  the  blood  before  undergoing  change  they 
cause  solution  of  the  red  colouring  matter  in  the  serum. 
They  are  probably  formed  in  the  liver.  This  is  a  useful 
fact  as  far  as  diagnosis  is  concerned.  If  the  bile  be  not 
secreted  only  the  colouring  matter  will  be  removed  by  the 
kidneys,  whereas  if  the  bile  be  reabsorbed  the  character- 
istic bile  acids  will  be  found  in  the  urine.  We  will 
summarise  the  testing  processes  from  Dr.  Legge^s  useful 
little  work  on  the  urine.  The  urine  is  deep  in  colour,  and 
stains  white  filtering  paper  yellow. 

Gmelin's  Test  determines  presence  of  bile  pigments. 
Allow  a  drop  of  nitric  acid  and  of  the  urine  to  be 
examined  to  run  together  on  a  porcelain  dish,  at  their  line 
of  contact  a  play  of  colours  will  occur,  consisting  of  green, 
violet,  blue,  and  red.  The  red  colour  will  appear  with 
any  urine.      The  green  colour  is  most  distinctive. 

Pettenhofer's  Test  is  for  the  bile  acids.  "  Pour  the 
fluid  containing  the  bile  acids  into  a  test  tube  ;  sulphuric 
acid  being  then  added,  at  first  in  small  quantity,  to  preci- 
pitate the  bile  acids,  but  afterwards  in  amount  sufficient 
to  redissolve  them,  which  renders  the  mixture  perceptibly 
hot  to  the  hand.  A  drop  of  syrup  may  now  be  let  fall 
into  the  liquid,  which  then  shows  a  play  of  colours,  passing 


102  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

from  pink  to  cherry-red,  and  from  red  to  purple/^  This 
test  must  not  be  applied  directly  to  the  urine,  but  the 
latter  must  first  be  rendered  faintly  ammoniacal  with 
caustic  ammonia,  and  then  diacetate  of  lead  added  until 
it  produces  a  precipitate — this  must  be  washed  with  dis- 
tilled water,  boiled  with  alcohol,  and  thrown  into  excess  of 
ether — the  bile  salts  will  crystallise  out  and  being  dissolved 
in  distilled  water  may  be  tested  by  Pettenkofer's  test. 

Besides  the  altered  colour  and  chemical  reactions  of  the 
urine,  other  symptoms  of  a  marked  character  may  be 
noted  in  this  disorder,  the  visible  mucous  membranes  and 
the  skin  become  yellow ;  the  change  in  colour  of  the  eye 
gives  a  very  characteristic  appearance ;  besides  the  general 
symptoms  of  disorder  the  animal  is  markedly  dull  and 
debilitated.  The  pulse  is  slow,  and  there  is  considerable 
disorder  of  the  bowels  as  shown  by  torpidity  and  flatulence, 
the  faeces  being  scanty,  dry,  and  dark  coloured.  The 
bile  acts  as  a  natural  stimulus  to  the  coats  of  the  intes- 
tines, and  its  loss  is  felt.  In  milch  cows  the  milk  is  deep 
in  colour.  If  these  conditions  be  not  relieved  the  debility 
increases,  the  temperature  of  the  body-surface  falls  consi- 
derably, the  patient  wastes  away  rapidly,  dropsical  swellings 
occur  in  various  parts  of  the  body,  obstinate  diarrhoea  sets 
in,  and  death  from  anaemia  gradually  results.  The  causes 
which  give  rise  to  this  affection  are  organic  disorder  of 
the  liver,  or  such  functional  derangement  as  occurs  in 
congestion,  also  any  disorder  of  the  excretory  apparatus 
leading  to  obstruction,  such  as  tumours,  either  of  the 
walls  of  the  ducts  or  gall  bladder,  or  neighbouring  parts, 
parasites,  calculi,  stricture,  or  disease  of  the  wall  of  the 
duodenum  around  the  opening  of  the  bile  duct.  This 
disease  appears  among  cows  especially  in  the  spring  and 
autumn,  altogether  it  is  rather  frequent  in  the  ox. 

Post-mortem  appearances  will  enable  us  to  conclusively 
determine  the  cause  of  the  disorder;  there  is  a  diffused 
yellowness  of  the  tissues  and  a  high  colour  of  the  serum ; 
effusions  into  the  areolar  tissue,  and  into  serous  sacs,  as 
well  as  other  anaemic  conditions  are  present.  The  flesh  of 
animals  which  have  died  from  this  disease  is  discoloured,  it 


DISEASES    OF   THE    BLOOD.  103 

contains  a  cathartic  principle  not,  however,  of  a  very  active 
character,  also  anaemic  conditions  are  present,  therefore 
its  use  as  food  is  to  be  condemned. 

Our  treatment  must  depend  upon  extended  diagnosis 
of  the  case.  Derangements  of  the  liver  must  be  removed 
according  to  their  nature  in  each  instance.  Thus,  in  some 
cases  we  need  cholagogues,  in  others  sedative  agents. 
In  tuberculous  and  other  structural  derangements  of  the 
organ,  as  well  as  when  the  escape  of  the  bile  is  obstructed, 
we  must  adopt  palliative  rather  than  curative  means,  which 
latter  can  hardly  prove  effectual.  Dieting  with  succulent 
food  of  a  nutritious  and  easily  digestible  character,  gentle 
and  regular  exercise,  and  the  administration  of  eliminatives 
which  aid  the  action  of  skin  and  kidneys  must  be 
adopted  in  all  cases  of  jaundice.  Stimulant  tonics  which 
mildly  promote  the  activity  of  the  liver,  such  as  beer, 
prove  useful,  and  the  nitro-muriatic  acid  is  recommended 
in  cases  due  to  torpidity  of  the  biliferous  organ.  Animals 
highly  fed,  either  for  the  production  of  milk  or  fat,  are 
very  much  predisposed  to  disorder  of  this  nature,  even 
during  health  there  is  a  yellowness  of  the  skin  and  visible 
mucous  membranes  in  these  animals.  It  is  wonderful 
what  an  amount  of  structural  derangement  and  removal 
of  substance  the  liver  may  undergo  without  jaundice 
appearing.  Youatt  remarks  upon  a  special  scaly  eruption 
which  appears  on  the  skin  in  these  cases. 

Uejemia  is  described  by  Armatage  as  occurring  in  the 
ox.  It  certainly  is  not  frequent.  It  is  accumulation  in 
the  blood  of  urea  and  other  urine  constituents,  either  as  a 
result  of  a  blocking  up  of  the  urinary  passages,  or  of  con- 
siderable disorganisation  of  the  kidneys.  The  retained 
materials  act  upon  the  nervous  system,  producing  active 
toxic  effects.  The  most  marked  symptoms  are  the 
presence  of  urinary  constituents  in  the  sweat,  which  is 
profuse,  and  has  a  very  marked  odour,  and  the  slowness 
of  the  pulse  and  respirations,  with  a  marked  fall  of  in- 
ternal temperature.  This  is  the  result,  generally,  of  long- 
standing organic  disease  of  the  kidneys,  and  rapidly 
proves    fatal,    inducing    death    by    coma.      Such    is    the 


104  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

structure  of  tlie  urinary  passages  that  absorption  of  tlieir 
contained  fluid  will  not  occur,  but  sometimes  acute  uraemia 
takes  place,  when  after  lithotomy  urine  infiltrates  the 
areolar  tissue  around  the  wound. 

Treatment  comprises  removal  of  the  causes,  nursing, 
and  administration  of  stimulants.  The  disease  is  generally 
only  a  precursor  of  death. 

Rheumatism  seems  to  be  mainly  dependent  upon  de- 
creased activity  of  the  skin  and  accumulation  in  the  blood 
of  the  normal  constituents  of  sweat ;  whether  or  not  this  bo 
the  case,  the  blood  is  often  found  to  be  acid  in  its  reaction, 
which  has  been  attributed  to  the  presence  of  lactic  acid 
and  lithic  acid  in  excess.  The  matters  which  have  accu- 
mulated in  the  blood  cause  inflammation  of  the  white 
fibrous  tissues  of  the  body,  especially  those  situated  in 
connection  with  joints  and  the  deep  fibrous  structure  of 
the  endocardium  and  pericardium.  This  disease  is  some- 
what frequent  in  the  ox,  and  is  due  to  exposure  to  damp- 
ness and  cold.  Thus  it  is  most  frequent  in  marshy 
countries,  and  during  the  spring  and  autumn,  affecting 
old  rather  than  young  cattle.  It  has  been  observed  to 
follow  exposure  to  draughts,  especially  when  the  animal  is 
in  a  perspiring  condition,  also  it  appears  in  cows  exposed 
during  or  immediately  after  calving.  Undoubtedly  it  is 
hereditary.   Rheumatism  may  assume  an  acute  or  a  chronic 

orm,  and  becomes  localised  in  the  fasciae  of  the  loins  (lum- 
bago, or  ''  chine  felon ''),  in  the  serous  membranes  of  the 
heart,  or  in  the  joints  (rheumatic  arthritis,  "joint  felon,^^ 

'chrocles'^).  The  animal  at  first  in  an  acute  attack  is  dull  and 
hide-bound ;  has  a  staring  coat,  and  is  unwilling  to  move, 
and  there  is  generally  a  peculiar  rigidity  of  the  spine,  due 
to  affection  of  the  lumbar  fascia ;  shrinks  on  pressure 
being  applied  to  the  loins,  and  soon  the  extremities  be- 
come involved  in  the  stiffening.  There  are  then  local 
signs  of  inflammation,  with  special  hardness  of  the  swel- 
lings around  the  affected  joints ;  also  fever  is  present, 
characterised  by  the  hardness  of  the  pulse  and  the  sharp- 
ness of  its  beats.  The  animal  becomes  very  lame  on  one 
or  more  limbs,  when   suddenly  the  disease  seems  to  shift 


DISEASES    OP    THE    BLOOD.  105 

into  aiiofher,  frequently  the  corresponding,  part  of  the 
body.  This  metastatic  character  of  rheumatism  is  a  very 
marked  feature  of  the  disease.  The  tendency  of  the 
disorder  to  recur  in  a  part  once  affected  is  also  very 
evident.  The  swellings  of  a  hardened  character  which 
appear  around  the  joints  seldom  lead  to  suppuration, 
though  the  local  inflammation  runs  high,  and  causes  severe 
fever,  the  blood  containing  very  much  fibrin.  The  changes 
which  result  from  this  special  arthritis  are  peculiar.  Re- 
moval of  articular  surfaces  in  parts  occur,  and  the  exposed 
cancellated  tissue  becomes  consolidated  by  deposition  of 
bony  substance,  and  exhibits  a  high  polish,  which  results 
from  friction.  This  is  termed  ehurnation,  or  porcellaneous 
deposition.  The  urine  in  rheumatism  contains  much  saline 
matter,  due  to  increase  in  amount  of  hippurates  excreted. 
When  the  disease  assumes  the  chronic  form  it  is  most 
liable  to  produce  the  above-mentioned  change  of  articular 
surfaces.  Calcification,  or  even  ossification,  of  the  fasciae 
and  ligaments  may  result  from  the  chronic  form  ;  thus, 
tumours,  apparently  of  a  bony  character,  may  be  found 
embedded  among  muscles,  or  loosely  or  firmly  connected 
with  bones.  They  are  not  truly  ossific,  being  composed 
largely  of  hippurates,  or  urates  of  alkalies,  sometimes, 
especially  when  they  appear  in  joints,  they  are  termed 
gout-stones.  The  endocardium  tends  to  become  the  seat 
of  fibrinous  deposit,  and  the  pericardium  to  opacity,  cal- 
cification, and  even  ossification  in  chronic  rheumatism. 
Disorder  of  this  kind  renders  the  heart  irritable,  inter- 
mittent in  its  action,  and  the  pulse  quick,  hard,  and 
small.  "  The  soft  structures  above  and  below  the  affected 
joints  in  horned  cattle  sometimes  swell,  suppurate,  and 
continue  to  discharge  pus  for  a  lengthened  period,  the 
animal  rapidly  wasting,  and  finally  becoming  worthless  " 
(Williams)  ;  and  when  suffering  from  the  arthritic  form 
cattle  obstinately  remain  recumbent. 

Treatment  must  comprise  most  careful  nursing  of  the 
animal,  and  avoidance  of  exposure  to  draughts ;  ad- 
ministration of  eliminatives,  such  as  will  promote  the 
action  of  the  skin,  bowels,  and  kidneys.      Colchicum  is 


106  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

found  to  be  especially  useful  in  disorders  of  this  cliaracter. 
Iodide  of  potassium  also  has  been  found  beneficial.  Also 
alkalies  are  valuable  to  counteract  acidity.  In  arthritic 
complications  fomentations  are  considered  but  loss  of  time. 
Stimulants  are  beneficial,  especially  vesicants,  for  it  is 
supposed  that  they  draw  off  the  poison  from  the  blood, 
and  lessen  its  tendency  to  affect  the  heart.  The  general 
fever  must  be  combated  by  doses  of  tincture  of  aconite. 
Williams  recommends  that  the  bedding  be  frequently 
changed  to  prevent  bed-sores,  and  the  inflamed  joints 
wrapped  in  flannel  to  prevent  bruising.  He  considers 
also  that  if  suppuration  sets  in  the  animal  should  be 
destroyed,  as  chances  of  recovery  are  very  slight.  Kheu- 
matism  tends  to  assume  the  chronic  form,  and  may  cause 
death  by  cardiac  complication,  or  by  continuous  irritative 
fever.  The  flesh,  being  full  of  impurities,  is  unfit  for  food. 
The  joints,  besides  the  lesions  already  noticed,  frequently 
exhibit  false  anchylosis  and  ulceration  of  cartilages. 

H^MO-ALBUMINUEIA MuiR-ILL,  ReDWATEE,  BlACKWATER 

is  a  disease  which  is  very  prevalent  in  some  parts  of  the 
country  and  especially  affects  cows  (just  before  or)  after 
calving,  generally  on  about  the  fourteenth  day.  It  com- 
mences with  general  febrile  symptoms  and  diarrhoea.  Then 
the  animal  stands  with  arched  back,  obstinate  torpidity  of  the 
bowels  sets  in,  and  about  the  same  time  urine  of  a  high 
colour  in  small  quantities  is  expelled  with  some  force 
by  straining;  also  tenderness  over  the  loins  is  present. 
The  respirations  are  laboured,  pulse  very  quick,  small,  and 
dicrotous,  and  the  animal  very  dull  and  giving  no  milk, 
or  only  a  little  of  a  yellowish  colour  and  unpleasant  odour. 
The  visible  mucous  membranes  are  of  a  yellow  colour. 
The  discoloration  of  the  urine  is  very  characteristic,  and 
undergoes  increase  in  intensity  as  the  disorder  progresses. 
Youatt  mentions  two  forms  of  the  disorder,  acute  and 
chronic.  The  former,  manifested  by  the  symptoms  above 
indicated,  runs  its  course  in  a  few  days ;  the  latter  is 
more  prevalent,  and  may  be  slight,  and  terminated  by  a 
spontaneous  diarrhoea,  or  else  may  extend  over  a  con- 
siderable time.      All  the   above-mentioned  symptoms  ex- 


DISEASES    OF    THE    BLOOD.  107 

cept  fever  being  present,  generally  sucli  prolonged  cases 
terminate  in  death  from  gradually  increasing  anaemia. 
Calves,  bullocks,  and  even  bulls  may  be  affected  with  this 
disorder,  but  less  frequently  than  cows. 

Causes. — It  is  very  prevalent  on  certain  pastures,  and 
not  on  others  even  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood.  It 
has  been  associated  with  certain  special  soils,  and  par- 
ticularly with  movement  of  stock  from  land  of  one  kind 
to  another.  Overdriving  is  considered  a  cause,  as  also 
certain  special  states  of  the  air  and  great  alternations  of 
temperature.  It  is  on  the  latter  account,  probably,  that 
it  occurs  very  much  during  the  summer  among  animals 
brought  to  highland  pasture  from  richer  lowland  soil. 
As  a  rule,  the  disease  is  most  frequent  in  spring  and 
autumn,  and  high  condition,  as  well  as  difl&culty  in 
cleansing  after  calving,  is  considered  a  predisposing  cause. 
Cases  have  been  traced  to  the  drinking  of  stagnant  water, 
while  Harrison  attributes  its  prevalence  in  some  cases  to  a 
hot  and  dry  condition  of  pastures,  and  to  excess  of  drain- 
age. It  has  been  found  very  prevalent  in  woody  districts. 
Also  a  poor  diet  of  any  kind,  as  turnips,  about  the  time 
of  calving,  will  prove  a  cause. 

The  Urine  has  an  average  specific  gravity,  1041,  with 
alkaline  reaction,  and  a  more  or  less  powerful  odour  of 
rotten  turnips;  contains  1'82  albumen,  1*26  urea,  and 
1'28  extractives  in  100  parts  of  urine,  while  on  micro- 
scopical examination  crystals  of  cholesterine,  hippurates, 
phosphates,  and  epithelial  scales  were  found  more  or  less 
abundantly  (Williams). 

Post-mortem  examination. — Youatt  speaks  of  consider- 
able inflammation,  ulceration,  and  often  the  formation  of 
foetid  pus,  and  occasionally  gangrene  of  the  uterus  in  acute 
cases  ,  but  probably  he  was  labouring  under  some  error,  for 
he  also  speaks  of  inflammation  of  the  kidneys,  which  cer- 
tainly is  not  present.  The  uterus  simply  contains  dark- 
coloured  mucus,  while  the  kidneys,  though  occasionally  they 
are  found  congested,  usually  are  paler  than  ordinary.  The 
bladder  contains  some  of  the  characteristic  red  or  black 
urine,  according  to  the  stage  of  the  case.      The  serum  of 


108  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

the  blood  is  very  high  coloured,  as  are  also  the  contents  of 
the  areolar  interspaces  and  serous  cavities,  and  of  the  lym- 
phatic vessels.  Ecchymoses  are  perceptible  under  the 
endocardium.  The  first  three  compartments  of  the 
stomach  are  generally  full,  and  the  contents  of  the  omasum 
especially  very  dry.  The  abomasum  exhibits  congestion 
of  its  internal  surface.  The  liver  seems  to  be  invariably 
diseased,  being  congested  both  with  blood  and  bile,  hence 
enlarged,  dark,  and  soft.  The  bile  collected  in  the  gall- 
bladder is  generally  thick,  viscid,  and  dark. 

Pathology. — Numerous  theories  on  the  nature  of  this 
disorder  have  been  advanced  : 

(1)  It  has  been  attributed  to  the  presence  of  certain 
ranunculi  in  pastures,  but  it  arises  under  circumstances 
where  animals  could  not  obtain  such  poisons. 

(2)  Youatt  considers  the  acute  form  is  inflammation  of 
the  kidneys,  and  '^  probably  may  be  traced  to  the  quality  of 
the  general  produce  of  the  soil  rather  than  to  the  presence 
of  certain  plants  of  known  acrimonious  or  poisonous  pro- 
perties.''^ The  chronic  form  he  attributes  to  an  acri- 
monious condition  of  the  bile,  which  is  absorbed  into  the 
blood,  and  irritates  the  kidneys. 

(3)  It  was  thought  that  the  colour  of  the  urine  de- 
pended upon  the  presence  of  blood  in  it,  but  the  absence 
of  blood  as  blood  is  proved  by  the  absence  of  red 
corpuscles.  Gamgee  considers  the  disease  haema- 
turia,  and  this  opinion  is  held  by  many  continental 
authorities.  In  true  ha3maturia,  however,  blood  occurs, 
in  the  urine  in  clots  and  is  expelled  in  this  state. 

(4)  Professor  Williams  says  : — ^'  I  am  induced  to  con- 
clude that  the  disease  originates  in  an  impoverished  con- 
dition of  the  blood,  arising  from  want  of  proper  food  ; 
that  the  albumen  of  the  blood  is  thus  degraded  in  quality, 
and  as  such  is  unfit  to  be  appropriated  for  the  nourish- 
ment of  the  tissues,  and  is  consequently  excreted  by  the 
kidneys,  and  expelled  from  the  body  ;  that  the  blood- 
globules  are  in  a  broken-down  or  disintegrated  condition 
arising  from  solution  of  their  outer  layers  or  cell-walls, 
when  their   coloured  interior — haematin — escapes,    which. 


DISEASES    OF    THE    BLOOD.  109 

mixing  with  the  serum  of  the  blood,  and  being  eliminated 
by  the  kidneys,  gives  the  characteristic  tinge  to  the 
urinary  secretion/^ 

(5)  The  disordered  conditions  may  all  be  referred  to 
defective  action  of  the  liver,  whereby  it  is  rendered  unable 
to  elaborate  albuminose  which  is  passing  from  the  in- 
testine, and  therefore  accumulates  in  the  blood.  At  the 
same  time  congestion  of  the  organ  seems  to  lead  to 
excessive  bile  production,  the  superfluous  material  being 
removed  by  diarrhoea  until  reaction  sets  in,  and  then 
entering  the  blood,  and  causing  disintegration  of  blood- 
corpuscles.  Until  we  are  more  assured  of  the  condition 
of  the  liver  in  this  disease,  as  also  the  spectroscopical 
characters  of  the  blood  and  urine,  we  shall  not  be  able  to 
state  its  pathological  nature  with  full  confidence. 

(6)  Armatage  attributes  it  in  many  cases  to  the  icy 
coldness  of  a  large  quantity  of  frozen  turnips  introduced 
into  the  rumen,  and  undoubtedly  this  is  one  of  the  ways 
in  which  it  may  originate.  Our  knowledge  of  the  phy- 
siology of  the  liver  is  hardly  yet  sufficiently  advanced  to 
enable  us  to  understand  the  complex  perversions  which 
occur  in  such  a  disorder  as  this. 

Treatment. — Professor  Simonds,  who  first  showed  that 
this  is  a  disease  due  to  alteration  in  the  blood,  and  pointed 
out  the  presence  of  blood  colouring  matters  and  albumen  in 
the  urine,  considered  bleeding  advantageous  in  the  earliest 
stages  of  the  disorder.  Certainly  the  administration  of 
a  cathartic  is  beneficial,  it  removes  from  the  alimen- 
tary canal  indigestible  material  which  tends  to  cause 
irritation.  Again,  it  arouses  the  liver  to  activity  when 
this  is  necessary,  and  enables  it  to  relieve  itself  of  con- 
gestion. It  follows  nature's  indication,  for  a  salutary 
diarrhoea  often  ushers  in  a  favorable  turn  of  the  case. 
The  animal  should  be  nursed  carefully,  and  subjected  to  a 
thorough  change  of  diet.  The  kidneys  should  be  assisted 
in  their  endeavours  to  purify  the  blood  by  stimulant 
diuretic  agents.  At  the  same  time  formation  of  good 
fresh  blood  should  be  promoted  by  restorative  haematics. 
Professor  Williams,  in  accordance  with  his  theory  of  the 


110  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

nature  of  tlie  disease,  suggests  eggs  and  milk,  and  in 
addition  to  this  highly  albuminous  food,  stimulants  and 
chlorate  of  potash. 

Scarlatina  has  been  described  by  Professor  Barlow. 
It  is  very  similar  to  the  disease  next  described,  but  differs 
in  the  less  marked  swelling  and  in  the  spotted  character 
of  the  mucous  membrane  which  is  covered  with  red  points, 
and  altogether  has  a  scarlet  colour  differing  from  the 
ecchymoses  and  blood  infiltrations  of  purpura.  There  is 
also,  generally,  sore  throat. 

PuEPURA  HEMORRHAGICA. — Urticaria  tuherosa  (Simonds)  ? 
is  described  as  affecting  cattle,  though  certainly  it  is  not 
so  frequent  in  them  as  in  the  horse.  Calves  are  deemed 
most  liable  to  this  disease  which  consists  in  a  disordered 
condition  of  the  blood.  That  fluid  is  thin  and  so  related 
to  the  blood-vessels  that  extravasations  occur  especially 
on  the  mucous  and  serous  membranes.  Swellings  appear 
on  various  parts  of  the  body  which  are  hot  and  painful 
and  somewhat  sharply  circumscribed.  From  them  and 
from  the  nostrils  flows  a  reddish  fluid.  The  animal  is 
extremely  debilitated.  The  swellings  of  the  mucous 
membrane  obstruct  respiration  and  deglutition.  The 
depraved  state  of  the  blood  causes  a  weak  and  fluttering 
action  of  the  heart,  and  a  small  dicrotous  pulse.  Petechiae 
and  blood  extravasations  on  the  mucous  membranes  are 
pathognomonic.  Undoubtedly  these  conditions  may  arise 
from  several  pathological  states,  which  interfere  with  the 
relations  of  the  blood  with  the  vessels  which  contain  it. 
It  is  not  essential  that  capillary  ruptures  should  take 
place  in  production  of  petechiae  and  extravasations  of  red 
corpuscles.  A  slight  migration  of  these  bodies  occurs  in 
health  (diapedesis),  but  doubtless  in  most  cases  of  purpura 
there  is  a  true  giving  way  of  the  walls  of  the  capillaries. 
By  some  authorities  purpura  is  considered  anthracoid  in 
its  nature.  This  is  not  the  place  to  minutely  discuss  the 
various  pathological  theories  of  purpura;  the  disease 
follows  debilitating  influences,  as  previous  disease,  exposure, 
and  inhalation  of  foul  air. 

Autojysy  shows  petechiae  of  serous  and  of  deeply-seated 


DISEASES    OF   THE    BLOOD.  Ill 

mucous  membranes,  together  with  extensive  haemorrhagic 
infiltrations  ;  also  sero-sanguineous  accumulations  in 
areolar  spaces.  The  disease  generally  assumes  a  sub- 
acute character,  and  after  about  a  week  terminates  in 
gradual  recovery  of  strength,  or  more  frequently  in 
sinking  of  the  patient,  and  death  from  asthenia. 

Treatment  consists  in  careful  attention  to  hygiene,  supply 
of  nutritious  and  easily  digestible  food,  the  use  of  elimi- 
natives  and  stimulants.  Oil  of  turpentine  is  recommended 
since  it  acts  on  the  kidneys,  is  a  stimulant  and  also 
a  haemostatic.  The  tincture  of  perchloride  of  iron  promotes 
the  formation  of  red  corpuscles,  and  also  acts  as  a  styptic. 
Sulphuric  acid,  as  a  styptic  and  tonic,  is  also  used  with 
benefit.  The  disease  is  rather  liable  to  recur,  and  the 
stage  of  convalescence  is  prolonged. 

Diabetes  insipidus  sometimes  arises  from  excessive 
introduction  of  water  into  the  blood,  but  as  it  occurs  more 
frequently  from  other  causes  will  be  treated  hereafter. 

Diabetes  mellitus  has  not  been  proved  to  affect  the  ox. 

y.   Introduction  into  the  blood  of  matters  foreign  to  it. 

(1)  Ordinary  toxic  agents. 

Here  ought  to  be  considered  those  cases  of  ordinary 
poisoning  which  result  from  the  entry  of  matters  into  the 
blood,  which  either  act  on  the  blood  itself  or  upon 
parts  distant  from  the  point  of  entry,  and  thus  cause 
serious  inconvenience  and  even  death.  Such  poisons, 
however,  must  be  considered  in  relation  with  others 
which  have  a  local  action,  and  therefore  will  be  examined 
hereafter. 

(2)  Specific  toxic  agents. 


Section  2. 

These  give  rise  to  specific  diseases,  under  which 
heading  may  be  comprised  all  disorders  which  manifest 
characters  of  a  highly  special  kind,  whether  in  their 
course,  cause,  or  termination.  This  definition,  like  most 
others,  does  not  enable  us  to  accurately  limit  the   thing 


112  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

defined,  but  rather  while  strictly  applicable  to  the  central 
figure  of  the  group  allows  us  to  arbitrarily  decide  its  out- 
lying limits.  Thus,  some  authors  include  rheumatism 
and  tetanus  among  specific  disorders,  while  others  refuse 
tubercle,  cancer,  and  influenza  a  place  in  the  list.  We 
have  included  under  this  heading  diseases  which  seem  to 
be  due  to  minute  living  organisms,  the  nature  of  which 
varies  in  different  cases.  On  the  one  hand,  we  have 
cancer  consisting  of  body  cells  which  have  a  high  degree  of 
vital  energy,  as  manifested  by  their  reproductive  power. 
They  resemble  certain  natural  components  of  the  tissues, 
but  are  remarkable  for  retaining  their  vitality  when 
grafted  on  to  a  fresh  organism,  after  removal  from  that  in 
which  they  originated.  Tubercle  is  closely  allied  to 
cancer  in  its  general  nature.  On  the  other  hand,  we 
have  anthracoid  affections  which  are  undoubtedly  due  to 
the  presence  of  minute,  independent,  and  entirely  foreign 
organisms  in  the  system.  Of  the  diseases  lying  between 
these  extremes  some  have  been  traced  to  certain  relations 
with  foreign  minute  organisms,  while  the  cause  of  others 
remains  a  mystery.  In  no  branch  of  medical  inquiry  is 
more  progress  being  made  than  in  the  study  of  specific 
disorders.  This  is  a  direct  result  of  the  fact  that  they, 
more  than  any  other  disorders  of  domesticated  animals, 
make  themselves  felt  by  the  community,  for  they  spread 
rapidly  among  herds,  are  generally  very  fatal  in  their 
effects,  and  not  unusually  can  originate  disease  of  like 
kind  in  man.  Though  it  has  not  been  proved  in  every 
case  that  these  diseases  are  due  to  special  organisms,  we 
shall  find  it  advantageous  to  adopt  the  ^'  germ  theory ''  as 
a  hypothesis  for  working  purposes.  "We  may  safely  do 
so,  for  it  has  already  explained  many  previously  obscure 
facts,  and  no  positive  evidence  has  been  brought  to  bear 
against  it.  Given  this  supposition  we  must  then  conclude 
that  the  organised  generators  of  disease  have  certain 
special  characters  of  form,  composition,  and  life  conditions. 
Among  the  latter  we  must  consider  their  origination, 
metamorphoses,  habitat,  products,  &c.  On  some  of  these 
points  we  are  profoundly  ignorant,  there  are  many  of  the 


DISEASES    OP    THE    BLOOD.  113 

organisms  whose  existence  we  can  at  present  affirm  only 
from  reasoning,  they  being  probably  too  small  to  be  seen 
in  the  present  state  of  optics.  Many  have  only  just  been 
discovered,  and  their  nature  and  action  are  by  no  means  de- 
cidedly ascertained.  Others,  as  the  anthrax  organism,  we 
are  fairly  well  acquainted  with.  These  diseases  often  assume 
the  epizootic  or  panzootic  character,  the  atmosphere  seems 
to  be  the  temporary  habitat  of  the  organisms,  which  occur 
in  groups, — disease  clouds — much  as  shoal  of  fish  in  the  sea. 
Such  a  theory  will  account  for  many  obscure  facts  of  cause 
and  propagation  of  influenza  and  other  diseases.  It  is  well 
known  that  blights  occur  in  clouds  ;  why  should  not  also 
disease  germs  which  are  probably  closely  allied  in  nature  ? 
Certain  conditions  of  climate  are  found  favorable  to  distri- 
bution of  disease  in  this  manner.  Heat,  with  moisture,  states 
favorable  to  the  growth  of  fungi,  most  readily  promote 
the  spread  of  specific  disease.  Frosty  weather,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  very  healthy  and  checks  prevailing  epizootics. 
Again,  it  has  been  found  that  currents  of  air,  as  prevailing 
winds,  may  determine  the  direction  of  passage  of  specific 
disorders  of  a  certain  kind,  though  not  so  as  to  impede 
less  rapid  and  energetic  progress  in  other  directions. 
Diseases  of  this  kind,  then,  seem  to  be  communicated 
without  contact  of  a  diseased  animal,  or  of  objects  which 
have  been  in  contact  with  one,  with  a  healthy  animal  of 
the  same  or  other  species ;  this  is  termed  Infection. 
But  we  can  readily  admit  that  certain  disease- bearing 
organisms  cannot  be  taken  up  and  diffused  by  the  air, 
though  they  may  be  communicated  from  one  animal  to 
another  when  actual  contact  occurs,  such  is  Immediate 
Contagion  ;  when  the  contact  is  indirect  as  when  the  two 
animals  are  fed  out  of  the  same  bucket  or  taken  care  of  by 
the  same  man,  either  man  or  bucket  may  convey  the  morbid 
producers  from  the  diseased  animal  and  thus  act  as  the 
vehicle,  by  means  of  which  Mediate  Contagion  is  brought. 
Inoculation  consists  in  the  introduction  of  the  active 
disease  producer  directly  into  the  blood-vessels  or  areolar 
tissue  of  an  animal,  or  causing  its  absorption  through  an 
open  wound  or  an  exposed  vascular  surface.      It  will  be 

8 


114  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

observed  that  infection,  contagion,  and  inoculation  are 
different  only  in  degree,  and  directly  related  to  the  readi- 
ness with  which  a  disease  is  communicable  from  one 
animal  to  another.  Thus,  most  active  and  freely  com- 
municable disorders  are  propagated  by  infection,  generally 
also  by  contagion,  and  they  may  be  generated  by  inocula- 
tion. In  infection  the  organic  particles  principally  gain 
entry  through  the  delicate  lining  membrane  of  the  air- 
passages.  We  can  easily  understand  that  some  of  these 
particles  will  be  able  to  produce  no  effect  when  they  come 
in  contact  with  the  surface  of  the  cuticle  through  which 
they  cannot  readily  pass,  and  thus  a  disease  may  be  infec- 
tious and  not  contagious.  Again,  certain  of  these  organisms 
may  require  to  undergo  development  probably  on  a  mucous 
surface  before  they  can  cause  disorder  when  they  enter 
the  blood.  We  do  not  accordingly  find  that  infectious 
diseases  are  always  communicable  by  inoculation,  though 
most  of  them  can  be  thus  propagated  with  facility.  Con- 
tagion, mediate  and  immediate,  is  well  illustrated  in 
certain  skin  diseases,  due  to  animal  parasites.  Specific 
disorders  affect  some  animals  more  readily  than  others  in 
consequence  of  predisposition  or  immunity.  Generally, 
debilitated  animals  are  most  prone  to  disorders  of  this 
character,  and  debilitating  influences  even  after  expo- 
sure to  infection  or  contagion  may  act  as  determining 
causes  (causes  which  render  the  system  susceptible  after 
exposure  to  the  influence  of  the  disease  producer) .  Shocks 
to  the  nervous  system  are  especially  potent  in  this  respect. 
Immunity  may  be  due  to  conditions  of  the  species  (specific), 
or  of  the  individual.  The  latter  form  is  especially  marked 
in  epizootic  or  enzootic  outbreak  when  all  of  the  herd  will 
be  more  or  less  victimised,  except  a  few  animals,  which 
remain  quite  free  from  disease.  Immunity  is  some- 
times secured  by  a  previous  attack  of  disorder  as  is  well 
seen  in  cases  of  smallpox  in  man,  this  results  from  pro- 
found alterations  in  nutrition,  but  it  seems  that  in  time 
this  immunity  becomes  lessened.  Again,  immunity  may 
be  secured  by  an  attack  of  an  allied  disorder.  When  the 
latter  is   much   milder   in  its  attack  it  may  be  artificially 


DISEASES    OF    THE    BLOOD.  115 

produced  to  act  as  a  prophylactic.  When  the  morbific 
organisms  are  hardy  and  capable  of  withstanding  con- 
siderable variations  in  life  conditions  so  that  animals  of 
very  different  kinds  are  invaded  by  them,  the  disease  which 
they  produce  is  panzootic ;  foot-and-mouth  disease  is  a 
good  illustration  of  this.  Our  diagnosis  of  these  specific 
disorders  generally  must  be  prompt,  to  check  any  tendency 
to  spread.  In  all  cases  where  any  doubt  exists  the  animal 
must  be  isolated  as  suspicious,  and  other  prophylactic 
measures  adopted.  Diagnosis  is  often  followed  by  the 
stringent  test  of  accuracy  of  opinion  which  immediate 
slaughter  affords.  Fortunately,  therefore,  these  disorders, 
especially  the  most  acute  of  them,  are  ushered  in  by  con- 
siderable rise  in  temperature.  This  occurs  very  shortly 
after  introduction  of  the  poison  into  the  system,  and  before 
it  has  had  much  time  to  multiply  therein  and  to  become 
expelled  into  the  air  around,  or  with  the  excreta.  This  rise 
is  the  first  indication  of  the  fever  which  constitutes  the 
systemic  disturbance  in  all  these  cases.  Later  the  general 
signs  of  fever  are  manifested,  and  they  run  their  course 
for  some  time  before  any  local  manifestations  of  disease 
are  shown.  Indeed,  the  latter  in  some  diseases  (exanthe- 
mata) seem  to  constitute  a  crisis  generally  of  a  favorable 
character.  In  all  cases,  then,  febrile  symptoms,  more  or 
less  acute,  usher  in  an  attack,  and  constitute  the  pre- 
monitory indications  of  disorder.  Only  when  we  are 
aware  of  the  prevalence  of  a  specific  disease  are  we,  in 
the  first  stage,  able  to  surmise  the  nature  of  the  coming 
disease,  for  the  fever  does  not  differ  from  ordinary  pyrexia. 
Only  when  local  lesions  occur  can  we  complete  our  diag- 
nosis, and  we  shall  generally  be  able  to  find  some  patho- 
gnomonic symptoms.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  virus  in 
these  specific  disorders  almost  always  like  an  eliminative 
medicinal  agent  enters  the  blood,  causes  certain  changes 
in  that  fluid,  and  then  is  removed  by  some  tissue  or  other. 
And  as  different  medicines  are  severally  removed  by  tissues 
on  which  they  exert  their  special  action,  so  in  specific 
disorders  we  find  that  in  epizootic  eczema  the  feet  and 
the  mouth  are  affected,  in  pleuro-pneumonia  the  lungs,  and 


116  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

SO  on.  Often  we  have  to  deal  with  complications  of  these 
disorders,  non-specific  conditions  to  which  they  give  rise, 
thus  in  eczema  to  sloughing  of  the  hoofs  and  mammitis  ; 
but  such  especially  occur  in  the  less  acute  disorders  which 
we  shall  have  to  mention,  cancer  and  tubercle.  It  is  then 
that  we  must  be  careful  to  distinguish  between  primary 
and  secondary  disease,  for  this  will  considerably  affect  our 
diagnosis  and  treatment. 

It  seems  that  an  outbreak  of  a  specific  disorder,  espe- 
cially when  the  disease  is  epizootic,  may  be  related  to  the 
severity  of  all  exciting  causes.  Thus,  if  the  disease 
first  appears  in  a  place  where  from  neglect  of  sanitary 
precautions  and  the  general  conditions  of  health,  animals 
are  very  predisposed,  severe  attacks  and  extensive  spread- 
ing power  are  the  results;  but  if  it  be  unable  to  gain  a 
firm  hold  on  its  first  victims,  it  will  never  "  gain  head '' 
enough  to  assume  a  marked  degree  of  virulence.  The 
tendency  of  disorders  of  this  kind  fortunately  is  to  lessen 
in  intensity  with  time,  a  happy  condition,  whereby  they 
are  prevented  from  annihilating  races  of  animals.  Some 
individuals  escape  by  immunity,  others  by  recovery  after 
comparatively  slight  attacks,  and  some  by  accidental  or 
intentional  escape  from  disease-bearing  influences.  Thus, 
an  outbreak  of  a  disease  of  this  kind  passes  over  a  dis- 
trict, and  spreads  from  it  into  a  new  locality,  diverging 
from  the  centre  in  every  direction,  or  in  lines  determined 
by  favorable  conditions ;  finally,  its  spread  is  checked  by 
dilution  of  the  original  stock  of  virus,  or  by  influences 
unfavorable  to  its  progress  as  reaching  the  sea,  or  a  range 
of  high  mountains,  or  being  subjected  to  a  frost.  The 
question  which  next  suggests  itself  to  us  is  the  source  of 
these  disorders.  This  question  is  one  of  the  most  urgent 
of  the  present  day.  Either  they  can  originate  de  novo,  or 
can  be  propagated  only  from  centres  of  disease  already 
existing.  The  latter  method  of  origin  of  an  epizootic 
affection  is  well  illustrated  in  those  disorders  of  which 
rinderpest  is  the  type.  It  constantly  exists  under  a  com- 
paratively mild  form  as  an  enzootic  in  certain  localities  as 
the  steppes  of  Russia  and  Central  China.      From  these  it 


DISEASES    OP    THE    BLOOD.  117 

periodically  extends  in  whatever  direction  climatic  con- 
ditions, war,  and  trade  may  determine,  sweeping  over 
wide  tracts  of  country,  and  leaving  desolation  and  terror 
behind  it.  Unless  introduced  into  such  a  country  as 
Great  Britain,  it  does  not  occur  there,  but  this  is  no  proof 
that  in  places  with  a  very  different  state  of  climate,  pro- 
duce, and  soil  it  might  not  be  generated  spontaneously. 
Tubercle  and  cancer,  though  communicable  by  inoculation, 
undoubtedly  appear  without  any  communication,  either 
by  contagion,  infection,  or  inoculation.  But  they  are 
hereditary  disorders,  and  the  immature  cancer  or  tubercle 
elements  may  have  been  transmitted  from  the  parent,  and 
have  remained  in  a  dormant  state,  resembling  ordinary 
non-specific  tissue  elements  until  surrounding  conditions 
became  favorable  to  the  display  of  their  full  vigour. 
This  view  seems  to  derive  support  from  the  fact  that  just 
as  in  due  time  each  feature  of  development  appears  in  the 
progeny  as  in  the  parent,  so  tubercle  appears  at  a  fixed 
age,  which  is  the  same  in  each.  Tissue  elements, 
hitherto  normal,  perhaps  undergo  change  when  subjected 
to  certain  conditions  ;  thus,  the  epithelium  of  the  lungs 
may  sometimes  become  converted  into  tuberculous 
matter,  such  as  may  propagate  the  disease  by  inoculation, 
and  disease  which  is  transmissible  to  the  offspring  may 
be  artificially  introduced  by  non-specific  means,  but  this 
has  not  by  any  means  been  proved,  for  until  quite  recently 
the  characters  of  tubercle  were  not  sharply  defined,  and 
accumulations  of  ova  of  parasites,  of  Gregarinidse,  of 
degenerated  epithelial  cells — in  fact,  any  mass  tending  to 
calcareous  or  caseous  change,  was  termed  tubercle.  On 
this  account  experiments  on  the  spontaneous  origin  of 
tubercle  are  to  be  accepted  with  reservation.  Both 
cancer  and  tubercle  are  associated  with  special  constitu- 
tional conditions,  cachexias,  termed  respectively  the  can- 
cerous and  the  scrofulous  diathesis.  The  lesions  which 
are  observed  in  these  disorders  are  considered  to  be 
local  manifestations  of  a  constitutional  disorder.  The 
time  which  elapses  between  the  entry  of  a  specific  poison 
into  the   system    and  the   manifestation    of   its   presence 


118  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

is  termed  its  latent  period.  It  varies  mucli  in  different 
diseases,  and  while  it  lasts  the  poison  is  undergoing 
elaboration  and  multiplication  in  the  blood.  We  may  find 
this  latent  period  very  prolonged  in  hereditary  scrofula 
or  cancer,  and  by  attention  to  avoidance  of  all  exciting 
causes  it  may  be  extended  through  even  a  long  life. 
The  lesions  of  specific  disorders  are  special,  and  therefore 
pathognomonic,  but  they  are  not  always  present.  The  virus 
introduced  into  the  blood  multiplies  more  or  less  readily, 
according  to  its  nature.  It  has  to  oppose  the  efforts  of 
nature  for  its  excretion  as  well  as,  in  some  cases,  to 
struggle  for  existence  with  certain  constituents  of  the 
blood.  If  the  resistance  be  too  powerful  the  poison  may 
be  thrown  off  before  the  end  of  the  incubatory  stage,  or  it 
may  persist  until  the  febrile  stage  ;  but  not  until  it  has 
produced  local  effects.  Ordinarily  it  acts  locally,  but 
sometimes,  especially  in  young  and  debilitated  stock  it 
may  increase  in  the  blood  so  rapidly  as  to  cause  the  fever 
to  run  very  high  and  destroy  the  animal  before  lesions 
appear.  We  shall  enlarge  upon  and  illustrate  these 
points  hereafter.  In  such  cases  as  I  have  last  described 
no  lesions  are  detectable  after  death  except  such  as  result 
from  the  febrile  state  of  the  blood  and  the  conditions  of 
that  tissue  itself.  It  is  very  dark  in  colour  as  a  rule,  and 
petechias  and  also  more  extensive  blood  extravasations  in  the 
various  tissues  occur,  especially  on  the  serous  and  mucous 
membranes.  Specific  organisms  may  be  detectable  in  the 
blood  when  examined  under  a  high  power  of  the  micro- 
scope. 

Treatment  of  these  disorders  comprises  prophylactic 
measures,  including  sanitary  port  and  county  inspection — 
measures  of  isolation,  such  as  quarantine  ;  thorough  dis- 
infection of  all  infected  places  and  things.  Such  imply 
Government  as  well  as  private  enterprise.  This  is  ab- 
solutely essential,  as  has  been  proved  by  many  a  national 
loss  incurred,  and  a  few  such  disasters  prevented.  The 
public  must  learn  that  remedies  must  be  proportioned  to 
diseases.  Sporadic  cases  are  of  individual  interest,  and 
must    be  attended    to  by  individuals ;    enzootics  require 


DISEASES    OP    THE    BLOOD.  119 

local    co-operation  to   combat  them ;  epizootics  and   pan- 
zootics are  of  national  importance. 

Cancer  is  a  general  term  applied  to  tumours  of  a 
malignant  character.  The  tendency  in  the  present  day  is 
to  restrict  its  use  to  the  carcinomata^  which  are  new 
growths  of  cells  similar  to  epithelial,  grouped  irregularly 
in  a  stroma.  We  shall  give  a  detailed  account  of  cancers 
of  various    kinds    later    on,    when   treating    of    tumours. 


A 


M 


Fig.  20. — Elements  of  an  Enceplialoid  Tumour. 

Brown.) 


200.     (After  Harley  and 


Certain  forms  of  cancer  have  been  successfully  inoculated, 
but  great  care  is  essential  to  success  ;  the  morbid  matter 
must  be  directly  transferred  from  one  body  to  another, 
and  must  be  in  a  definite  stage  of  activity.  The  process 
reminds  us  of  "  grafting,^'  and  seems  to  indicate  the 
possibility,  under  certain  circumstances,  of  cells  differing 
but  little  if  at  all  in  appearance  from  ordinary  healthy 
cells,  acting  as  true  contagia.  In  cases  of  cancer  induced 
by  inoculation,  the  general  constitutional  disorder  is  an 
effect  of  local  conditions  which  seems  to  be  the  reverse  of 
the  ordinary  rule  in  specific  affections.  This  exception  is 
rather  apparent  than  real.  In  cancer  the  contagium  must 
attain  local  vigour  and  incorporation  with  the  tissues 
before  it  can  involve  the  general  mass  of  the  blood.  This 
is  not  essential  to  any  other  known  specific  disorders 
except,  perhaps,   scrofula   and    rabies.      In   examining  a 


120  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

case  of  cancer  daring  its  progress  and  post-mortem,  we 
shall  ascertain  that  the  parts  diseased  are  involved  in  two 
ways — by  primary  and  secondary  disease.  The  latter 
changes  only  are  similar  to  those  of  special  tissues  in 
exanthemata.  It  seems,  too,  that  as  the  local  elabora- 
tion and  incubation  of  cancer  are  remarkably  prolonged, 
so,  also,  as  a  rule,  its  growth  in  parts  secondarily  diseased 
is  slow,  but  from  the  same  cause  very  potent,  and  capable 
of  invading  all  tissues,  though  some  in  preference  to 
others,  especially  those  which  are  actively  concerned 
in  cell  production.  So  lymphatic  glands  and  adenoid 
tissue  are  most  frequently  the  seat  of  cancer ;  the  spleen, 
liver,  and  mucous  membranes  also  are  liable  to  this  dis- 
ease. We  have  not  only  to  deal  with  circumscribed  ac- 
cumulations of  cancer-cells,  but  also  with  infiltrations, 
which  in  this  relation  are  of  the  highest  importance,  for 
the  growth  and  extension  of  cancer  does  not  actively 
irritate  sufiiciently  to  lead  to  deposits  of  lymph  circum- 
scribing the  diseased  parts ;  the  morbidly  active  cells 
have,  therefore,  free  scope  for  migration,  and  in  whatever 
situation  they  become  placed  can  originate  changes,  for  in 
no  part  of  the  body  do  they  materially  differ  from  tissue  ele- 
ments, so  uniform  has  been  the  development  of  these  gene- 
ralised cells.  Cancerous  infiltrations  or  tumours  cause  death 
in  two  ways,  by  exhaustion  when  they  are  numerous  and 
extensive,  and  by  active  interference  with  the  function  of 
a  part  by  disorganisation  of  its  tissues.  Prognosis  must, 
therefore,  be  based  upon  the  position,  size,  rapidity  of 
spread,  and  length  of  existence  of  the  cancer.  Injuries 
of  various  kinds  act  as  exciting  causes,  probably  by 
lowering  vital  actions,  and  hence  power  of  resisting  dis- 
ease in  the  part.  Hereditary  predisposition  is  very 
marked,  and  the  diagnosis  may  be  much  facilitated  by 
use  of  the  grooved  needle  and  the  microscope.  In  can- 
cers of  hollow  organs,  as  the  bladder  or  the  stomach,  the 
characteristic  cells  may  be  seen  in  the  contents  either 
after  death,  or  as  expelled  before.  Complications  are 
brought  about  by  the  blood  taking  up  morbid  material 
and  diffusing  it  through   the  system ;    by  the  lymphatics. 


DISEASES    OF    THE    BLOOD.  121 

whence  probably  the  frequency  of  invasion  of  lymphatic 
glands ;  or  by  continuity  and  contiguity  of  structure. 
The  systemic  symptoms  are  not  acute  enough  to  constitute 
fever^  producing  rather  a  cachexia,  or  unhealthy  state  of 
the  constitution.  Determination  of  whether  any  local  can- 
cerous deposit  is  primary  or  secondary  is  of  importance 
from  a  surgical  point  of  view.  When  primary,  a  growth 
may  be  excised  with  some  chance  of  success  in  permanent 
removal  of  the  disease.  In  secondary  cases  the  system  is 
hopelessly  invaded  ;  and  it  will  be  found  that  any  injury, 
however  slight,  is  almost  sure  to  take  on  unhealthy  action. 
Local  treatment  except  by  excision  has  not  proved  satis- 
factory, probably  in  consequence  of  the  difficulty  of  access 
to  all  the  diseased  parts.  Acetic  acid  has  been  recommended 
as  causing  alterations  in  the  cells,  of  which,  the  growth  is 
composed.  Its  value  is  doubtful.  When  the  morbid  matter 
is  removed  by  excision  care  must  taken  that  not  the  smallest 
diseased  part  remains  as  a  centre  for  renewed  growth. 

Scrofula,  Tuberculosis,  is  frequent  in  cattle,  extremely 
serious  in  its  effects,  and  has  interesting  relations  with 
human  disorders.  It  is  a  constitutional  disease,  specific, 
and  infective.  It  seems  to  increase  in  frequency  pari 
passu  with  improvement  of  the  breed,  and  thus  short- 
horns, especially  good  milkers,  are  most  predisposed  to  the 
disorder.  That  it  is  a  blood  disease  is  proved  by  the  fact  that 
it  very  frequently  affects  many  organs  of  the  body,  that  its 
local  manifestations  are  varied  in  position,  and  that  its 
presence  is  generally  denoted  by  a  cachexia,  an  ill-disposed 
habit  of  the  body,  which  is  termed  the  scrofulous  diathesis. 
It  is  undoubtedly  hereditary,  and  therefore  manifests 
its  presence  most  forcibly  after  "  breeding  in  and  in.^' 

Scrofula  is  the  disease  of  the  system  of  which  Tubercle 
is  the  local  manifestation.  That  we  may  be  in  a  position 
to  appreciate  the  interesting  questions  raised  in  the  study 
of  this  disorder,  we  must  first  note  the  forms  which  it 
assumes  in  the  ox. 

Phthisis  Pulmonalis  is  pulmonary  scrofula.  It  is  a 
chronic  disorder  in  which  tubercles  occur  in  the  lungs,  and 
give  rise  to  a  slow  local   inflammation   by  the  irritation 


122  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

whicli  they  excite.  It  affects  especially  narrow-cliested 
animals  with  long  legs.  A  young  animal  or  a  milch  cow 
(well-bred  in  most  cases)  is  observed  to  cough  slightly, 
and  the  characters  of  this  sign  of  disorder  are  rather  re- 
markable ;  it  is  weak  and  hoarse.  It  is  almost  diagnostic. 
The  affected  animals  are  generally  "  bullers/^  ever  ready 
to  take  the  male,  but  sterile.  Attention  having  thus  been 
drawn  to  the  animal,  it  is  found  that  the  skin  is  dry,  the 
coat  ''  staring.^^  The  constitutional  conditions,  in  fact, 
are  those  described  by  human  practitioners  as  hectic. 
The  mucous  membranes  are  pale,  and  the  respiratory 
murmur  is  inaudible  on  auscultation  of  some  parts  of  the 
chest.  Pain  is  evinced  on  percussion  of  the  sides,  and 
on  pressure  of  the  loins.  The  patient  is  debilitated  with 
a  weak,  quick  pulse,  and  the  bowels  respond  too  easily  to 
the  action  of  laxatives.  The  milk  is  bluish,  with  an 
unpleasant  flavour,  and  is  said  to  quickly  become  sour, 
and  to  form  only  bad  butter  and  cheese.  Generally,  too, 
the  internal  temperature  is  a  little  above  the  normal ; 
appetite  capricious.  In  pregnant  animals  abortion,  in 
other  females  irregular  oestrum  occurs.  This  state  of 
affairs  continues  for  some  time,  increasing  in  severity; 
the  cough  becomes  hacking,  the  animal  very  thin  and 
hidebound,  often  covered  with  lice,  and  the  respirations 
very  quick,  and  death  takes  place,  the  patient  being 
carried  off  by  an  attack  of  diarrhoea,  leading  to  anasmia. 

Autopsy  reveals  deposits  in  the  lungs  of  a  nodular 
character,  aggregated  into  masses  by  the  lung-tissue  and 
inflammatory  deposits,  and  varying  in  their  characters. 
The  tissue  in  which  they  are  imbedded  is  inflamed,  and 
they  have  pressed  on  the  bronchial  tubes,  preventing 
air  from  passing  to  and  from  the  air-cells.  Each  of  the 
nodules  is  a  tubercle,  and  the  compound  mass  exhibits  in 
different  parts  caseation  and  softening,  perhaps  also  cal- 
cification (also  known  as  cretification).  On  slitting  open  the 
bronchial  tubes,  we  find  that  many  of  these  softening 
tubercles  have  involved  their  lining  membrane,  which, 
therefore,  presents  ulcers  of  the  true  scrofulous  character, 
often  confluent,  gritty,  and  irregular  on  the  surface,  and  of 


-    DISEASES    OF    THE    BLOOD.  123 

a  sulphur  colour.  The  tubes  are  occupied  by  softened 
scrofulous  matter,  intermingled  with  frothy  mucus.  Accu- 
mulations of  softened  tubercle,  surrounded  by  cretaceous 
or  caseous  matter,  are  termed  vomicas.  The  anterior 
appendix  of  each  lung  is,  perhaps,  the  earliest  seat  of 
deposit.  The  pulmonary  lymphatic  glands  at  the  roots 
of  the  lungs  are  involved  in  the  diseased  action.  The 
serous  membranes  are  very  ^frequently  the  seat  of  scro- 
fulous deposit.  The  pleura  is  especially  liable  to  present 
growths  of  this  nature.  Such  may  occur  in  phthisical 
cases,  or  may  exist  independently  of  lung  invasion. 
Yery  frequently  they  are  found  in  fat  cattle  slaughtered 
for  food,  animals  in  very  fine  condition  which  have  not  re- 
cently exhibited  the  slightest  appreciable  sign  of  disorder. 
In  such  cases  we  sometimes  wonder  how  respiration  can 
have  been  sufficiently  performed,  to  such  an  extent  do  these 
"  grapes  "  occupy  the  cavity  of  the  thorax.  The  base  of 
the  tumour  formed  by  them  may  be  attached  to  the  dia- 
phragm, or  most  frequently  to  the  pleura  costalis.  Some- 
times the  mediastinum  and  the  pericardium  are  the  seat  of 
the  deposit.  Besides  these  large  main  masses,  smaller  tu- 
mours occur  in  various  parts  of  the  membrane,  consisting  of 
more  recently  formed  material,  the  larger  masses  exhibiting 
different  stages  of  retrograde  change  in  their  various  parts. 
Tabes  Mesenterica  is  that  form  of  scrofula  in  which  the 
mesenteric  glands  are  the  seat  of  tubercle.  Animals  ema- 
ciated as  a  result  of  tuberculosis,  especially  the  form  at 
present  under  description,  are  vulgarly  known  as  "  piners.^' 
The  symptoms  present  are  those  of  general  ill  health,  and 
rapidly  increasing  debility.  There  may  be  sympathetic 
cough.  Occasionally  the  animal  manifests  slight  abdominal 
pain  ;  diarrhoea  is  persistent.  The  appetite  is  good,  and  per- 
haps inordinate.  This  state  of  affairs  occurs  most  frequently 
in  young  animals,  and  post-mortem  examination,  besides 
the  tumefied  and  tuberculosed  condition  of  the  mesenteric 
glands,  shows  tumours  on  many  parts  of  the  peritoneum. 
The  mesentery  and  the  omentum  are  extensively  involved, 
and  the  stomachs,  liver,  and  intestines,  are  frequently 
bound  together  by  deposit.      As  a  concomitant  there  may 


124  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

be  scrofulous  disease  of  the  walls  of  the  intestines^  or  of 
the  uterus  or  vagina.  In  these  cases  characteristic  lesions 
are  to  be  found  on  slitting  open  the  organs,  and  during 
life  there  is,  in  the  one  case,  a  discharge  of  purulent 
material  with  the  watery  faeces,  in  the  other  a  continuous 
escape  of  muco-purulent  matter  from  the  vulva,  constituting 
scrofulous  leucorrhoea.  Cases  of  tabes,  and  scrofulous 
ulcers  of  the  intestinal  canal  and  the  generative  organs, 
are  generally  protracted,  and  death  results  from  ansemia. 

Tubercular  Meningitis  has  also  been  observed  in  cattle. 
The  pia  mater  is  the  seat  of  tubercle.  The  disease  may 
make  considerable  progress  before  any  signs  of  ill  health 
are  manifested.  Suddenly  the  symptoms  of  pressure  of  the 
brain  occur,  due  to  products  of  the  inflammation  induced, 
or  to  the  increased  size  of  the  tumours.  This  leads  to 
apoplectic  symptoms,  so  that  our  diagnosis  must  be  based 
on  the  pedigree  and  scrofulous  diathesis  of  the  patient. 

Arthritis  is  a  frequent  manifestation  of  scrofula  in  young 
stock.  It  must  be  distinguished  from  the  rheumatic 
disease  of  these  organs  by  the  fact  that  it  appears  less 
suddenly,  is  less  acute,  does  not  lead  to  false  anchylosis, 
and  more  extensively  involves  the  neighbouring  bones. 
Also  the  tendency  is  to  softening  rather  than  hardening  of 
the  diseased  parts,  and  when  the  tuberculous  matter  under- 
goes the  softening  change  abscesses  form  and  lead  deeply, 
not  only  into  the  cavity  of  the  joint,  but  into  the  enlarged 
extremities  of  the  bones  which  are  the  main  seat  of  scrofu- 
lous deposition;  On  post-mortem  examination  the  disease 
cannot  be  confounded  with  rheumatic  arthritis,  for  there  is 
a  total  absence  of  porcellaneous  deposit  and  of  calcification 
of  surrounding  ligaments,  while  the  enlarged  extremities  of 
the  bones  contain  tubercular  matter.  The  knee  and  stifle 
seem  to  be  most  frequently  affected,  and  when  the  joints 
of  the  foot  are  involved  we  have  scrofulous  ^'  foul.''^ 

Scrofulous  Tumours— ("  Wens  "  seem  to  be  scrofu- 
lous tumours  of  the  skin) — also  known  as  '^  Clyers,^^  occur 
frequently  in  various  parts  of  the  body,  especially  affecting 
those  parts  which  have  lymphatic  glands  situated  in  them  ; 
thus,  in  the  parotid  and  superior  pharyngeal  region  they  may 


DISEASES    OP    THE    BLOOD.  125 

often  be  found.  Though  they  may  take  place  in  other  tissues 
the  lymphatic  glands  are  their  most  frequent  seat;  thus^when 
the  tumours  are  in  the  parotid  region  these  are  primarily 
affected^  the  salivary  gland  being  only  secondarily  involved. 
They  increase  in  size  slowly  as  a  rule_,  but  may  manifest  a 
first  acute  stage,  which  change  to  a  phase  of  less  activity. 
Softening  often  occurs,  but  the  inflammatory  action  aroused 
by  the  presence  of  the  scrofulous  matter  is  often  not  active 
enough  to  cause  bursting  of  the  abscess,  which,  therefore, 
assumes  the  "  cold  "  character.  When  it  has  burst  or  been 
opened  surgically  it  gives  exit  to  white,  flaky,  grumous 
pus,  and  the  abscess  cavity  manifests  scarcely  any  tendency 
to  heal.  The  tumour  may  undergo  calcification  or  caseation, 
and  thus  remain  in  statu  quo  for  a  long  time.  The  explor- 
ing needle  is  here  very  useful  for  diagnosis,  for  when  drawn 
out  of  such  a  tumour  it  contains  in  its  groove  the  peculiar 
white  scrofulous  pus,  and  if  this  presents  the  ordinary 
appearances  of  scrofulous  matter  when  examined  micro- 
scopically there  can  be  little  doubt  of  the  nature  of  the  case. 

Scrofulous  Inflammation  of  the  Supra-fharyngeal  Glands 
requires  a  special  notice,  since  when  these  organs  are 
enlarged  there  is  an  impediment  to  swallowing,  and  fre- 
quently even  to  respiration.  They  seem  to  suppurate  or 
soften  readily,  but  do  not  come  to  a  point  externally. 
Insertion  of  the  hand  through  the  mouth  will  enable  us  to 
detect  the  abscess,  and  its  wall  may  generally  be  broken 
down  with  the  fingers.  '^  Abscesses  of  the  guttural 
pouches  of  the  ox,^^  described  by  some  practitioners  whose 
anatomy  has  rather  gone  to  the  wall  in  the  rush  of  general 
professional  practice,  are  of  this  nature. 

Scrofulous  lesions  are  often  congenital.  Tabes  and 
phthisical  tubercle  are  frequently  present  at  birth.  It 
will  be  observed  that  in  all  cases  of  scrofulous  lesion 
we  find  tubercle  present,  this,  then,  is  deemed  the  distinc- 
tive product  of  scrofula.  If  taken  in  its  earliest  state  a 
tubercle  is  a  rounded  mass  of  cells  of  a  peculiar  kind, 
united  together  by  a  stroma,  which  is  often  very  scanty, 
and  penetrated  to  a  certain  distance  from  the  periphery  by 
blood-vessels.     Though  the  outer  part  of  the  tubercle  is 


126 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


well  defined,  its  stroma  is  continuous  with  the  areolar 
tissue  of  the  part  in  which  it  is  placed.  Tubercle  cells 
are  generally  small,  but  some  few  are  large,  and  in  the 
nodule   are   also    present  free    nuclei    in  abundance    and 


,^%%;i,'Sji 


Fig.  21. — Tubercle.     A.  Deposit  in   the  air-cells  of  the  lungs,     li.  Miliary 
Tubercle,      x   200.     (After  Harley  and  Brown.) 

granules.  The  small  cells  are  most  frequently  seen ;  they 
are  rounded,  with  irregular  margins,  and  each  with  a  large 
nucleus.  ^'  They  sometimes  approach,  both  in  size  and 
appearance,  the  white  cells  of  blood  and  lymph.  We 
believe  that  sometimes  a  tubercle  does  develop  into  a 
structure  like  a  lymphatic  gland  (adenoid)  '^  (Jones).  A 
tubercle,  such  as  we  have  just  described,  is  termed 
''  miliary ''  or  ^'  grey/^  it  being  semi-transparent  and 
about  the  size  of  a  millet  seed.  It  is  remarkable  that  it 
does  not  increase  in  size,  but  new  cells  which  are  pro- 
duced are  deposited  in  its  outer  vascular  zone,  and  the 
interior  undergoes  change.      This  alteration  is  degenera- 


DISEASES    OF    THE    BLOOD.  127 

tive,  being  either  calcareous,  caseous,  or  softening.  These 
changes  have  nothing  specific  about  them,  with  the  excep- 
tion, perhaps,  of  the  softening,  the  product  of  which  is  a 
special  kind  of  purulent  fluid.  The  frequency  of  casea- 
tion and  calcification  account  for  the  chronic  tendency  of 
scrofula.  We  must  now  determine  what  the  tubercle  is. 
Some  says  it  results  from  changes  of  epithelial  cells, 
others  from  connective-tissue  corpuscles,  others  consider 
it  a  special  materies  morbi  deposited  from  the  blood  or 
formed  anew  in  a  formative  extravasated  fluid,  and  some 
say  it  is  a  hyperplasia  of  lymphoid  tissue.  Gerlach  says, 
"  the  presence  of  a  tubercle  virus  is  evident.^''  There  are 
other  theories  of  its  nature.  In  the  state  of  the  question 
we  may  be  allowed  to  take  the  view  which  most  readily 
chimes  in  with  clinical  facts,  and  consider  tubercle  cells 
specific  organisms  resembling  those  of  cancer,  to  which 
the  large  cells  sometimes  seen  in  tuberculous  matter  are 
remarkably  similar.  The  pathological  analogies  between 
cancer  and  tubercle  are  very  marked;  Jones  says  ^'  a 
tubercle  thus  seems  to  be  a  structure  intermediate  between 
the  products  of  inflammation,  and  the  new  growths  pro- 
perly so-called  being  less  transitory  than  the  former,  less 
permanent  than  the  latter,  and  less  capable  of  develop- 
men  than  the  latter.-*^  Sanderson  indicates  three  essentials 
to  the  development  of  tubercle — a  constitutional  predis- 
position, local  irritation,  and  subsequent  infection.  A 
freshly  developed  tubercle  consists  of  animal  matter, 
albumen,  fibrin  and  fat,  and  earthy  matter,  insoluble 
phosphates  and  carbonates  of  lime,  and  the  soluble  salts  of 
soda  (Glover).  Calcification  consists  in  increase  of  the 
earthy  and  decrease  of  the  animal  matter.  "  Grey 
tubercle  '^  results  from  caseation ;  the  fat  has  considerably 
increased.  The  fact  that  infiammatory  products  undergo 
these  retrograde  metamorphoses  has  long  complicated  the 
pathology  of  scrofula;  many  pathologists  still  hold  that 
tubercle  owes  its  origin  to  the  absorption  of  metamor- 
phosed products  of  inflammation.  Diagnosis  of  scrofula 
post-mortem  must  be  based  on  the  presence  of  the 
miliary  tubercle.     Hence,  a  doubt  frequently  exists  as  to 


128  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

the  tuberculous  or  non-tuberculous  characters  of  deposits  in 
connection  with  serous  membranes,  as  the  pleura.  Our 
decision  in  each  case  must  be  carefully  arrived  at.  Gene- 
rally, the  occurrence  of  isolated  tumours  of  rounded  lobu- 
lated  masses  and  of  indications  of  other  scrofulous  lesions 
will  enable  us  to  diagnose  scrofula.  There  is  but  one 
cause  of  scrofula,  the  specific  element,  but  there  are  many 
determining  influences.  Neglect  of  sanitary  measures, 
exposure,  changed  climatic  conditions  (notably  cold,  with 
dampness).  Debilitating  influences,  especially  excessive 
and  prolonged  lactations,  all  act  in  this  direction,  and  must 
be  corrected  as  a  prophylactic  measure ;  but  they  in 
themselves  are  not  able  to  originate  the  disorder  in  so 
far  as  we  know.  The  specific  element  comes  from  the 
parent  or  from  without.  Fresh  blood  must  be  introduced 
into  a  herd  with  a  scrofulous  tendency,  breeding  in-and- 
in  avoided ;  also,  perhaps,  we  shall  shortly  admit  that 
measures  of  disinfection  are  necessary  in  this  disorder,  for 
it  has  been  shown  that  animals  standing  side  by  side  and 
feeding  out  of  the  same  manger  and  drinking  from  the  same 
trough  or  bucket  have  both  succumbed,  one  only  having 
been  at  first  affected.  It  has  been  stated  that  tubercle  is 
communicable  by  inoculation,  but  this  is  not  yet  absolutely 
proved,  for  it  has  been  found  that  local  irritation  of  any 
kind  will  determine  development  of  tubercle.  Chauveau 
long  ago  caused  tuberculosis  in  cattle  by  feeding  them -on 
scrofulous  products  (^  Gaz.  Med.  de  Lyons,'  1860,  p.  550). 
The  intestines  were  affected  in  this  case.  The  experiment 
has  been  frequently  successfully  performed  on  other 
animals,  as  dogs,  poultry,  and  guinea-pigs.  Bollinger's 
experiment  with  milk  is  remarkable.  He  took  half  of  a 
litter  of  pigs  from  a  healthy  sow,  and  fed  them  with  milk 
from  a  phthisical  cow.  The  state  of  the  cow  was  proved 
by  autopsy.  The  pigs  were  destroyed  at  regular  intervals, 
and  those  kept  on  the  milk  of  the  sow  were  found  to  be 
healthy,  while  those  fed  with  the  scrofulous  milk  were  all 
more  or  less  affected  with  tuberculosis. 

It  is  most  important  to  decide  what  relation  tubercle  in 
man  bears  to  tubercle  in  the  lower  animals.      The  milk 


DISEASES    OP    THE    BLOOD.  129 

of  scrofulous  cowsj  though  mucli  altered  from  healthy 
conditions,  finds  its  way  into  the  market;  numbers  of 
children  and  weak  persons  are  fed  on  uncooked  milk. 
Cases  of  intestinal  and  mesenteric  scrofula  are  frequent 
in  man.  We  cannot  avoid  the  conclusion  that  many 
human  beings  share  the  fate  of  BoUinger^s  pigs  !  Next  we 
must  ask  ourselves  about  the  flesh  of  scrofulous  animals. 
This  is  almost  invariably  consumed  as  food,  and  is  not 
often  thoroughly  cooked.  We  are  not  yet  in  a  position 
to  say  that  ill  effects  result  from  this,  but  since  such  flesh 
is  under  grave  suspicion,  would  reject  it,  for  we  consider  the 
chance  of  causing  serious  human  disease  must  not  be  run, 
even  though  meat  which  may  be  harmless  must  be  sacrificed. 
Certainly  all  scrofulous  deposit  must  be  removed  before  the 
meat  is  sold,  under  protest,  if  it  is  found  necessary  to  let  it 
go  into  the  market.  For  we  are  sure  that  feeding  animals 
on  scrofulous  tumours  has  given  rise  to  the  disease. 

Gerlach,  the  discoverer  of  the  transmissibility  of 
tubercle  through  the  digestive  organs,  as  a  result  of  most 
careful  investigations,  decided  that  "  the  flesh  of  a  tuber- 
culous cow  is  infectious,  and  is  unfit  for  food  when  there 
is  decided  disease  of  the  lymphatic  glands,  when  the 
tubercles  are  breaking  up  and  becoming  cheesy,  and  when 
tubercles  are  found  in  different  parts  of  the  body^^ 
(' Veterinary  Journal,^  v,  203,  &c.). 

Quite  recently  Yirchow  has  decided  that  human  tubercle 
is  not  the  same  as  the  disease  in  the  ox ;  and  in  the  'Lancet ' 
for  19th  June,  1880,  Dr.  Crighton  gives  this  matter  a  new 
aspect  by  stating  that  in  the  human  subject  two  tubercu- 
lous diseases  occur,  one  of  these  being  the  true  pathological 
equivalent  of  bovine  tuberculosis,  bearing  to  it  the  same 
relations  which  human  "  glanders  ''  bears  to  equine.^ 

Treatment. — In  phthisis  and  tabes  the  prognosis  must 
be  decidedly  unfavorable.      As   a   rule  they  end  in  death, 

1  While  this  sheet  is  passing  through  the  press,  receipt  of  '  Tuberculosis 
from  a  Sanitary  and  Pathological  point  of  view '  reminds  me  that  in  justice 
to  the  persistent  eiforts  of  the  author,  Mr.  Oeorge  Fleming,  P.R.C.V.S.,  1 
must  mention  him  as  the  most  forcible  exponent  in  this  country  of  the  ill 
effects  which  may  result  from  feeding  on  milk,  meat,  and  tuberculous 
material  from  cattle  affected  with  this  serious  disorder. 

9 


130  BOVINE  PATHOLOGY. 

but  some  cases  of  rallying  have  been  recorded.  How- 
ever, animals  suffering  from  these  conditions  are  unsafe 
to  use  either  for  breeding,  milking,  or  for  human  food; 
besides,  they  never  become  fat  properly.  The  expense 
and  constant  trouble  of  keeping  them  is  not  such  as  will 
be  atoned  for  by  subsequent  value  of  the  animal.  In 
arthritic  cases,  which  occur  in  young  stock,  treatment  is 
not  satisfactory.  Some  of  the  patients  recover,  but 
the  scrofulous  tendency  hangs  about  them,  and  they 
do  not  do  well.  Very  frequently  the  suppuration  against 
the  joints  wears  out  the  patient.  Stimulating  applications 
locally  applied  are  beneficial  as  promoting  nature^s  efforts 
to  throw  off  tbe  tuberculous  matter  in  abscess.  Tonic 
agents  must  be  administered,  and  deobstruents,  especially 
the  compounds  of  iodine  and  bromine.  V/hen  the  ab- 
scesses have  formed  we  shall  have  to  resort  to  stimulant 
injections  to  promote  granulation.  Scrofulous  tumours 
must  be  treated  much  in  the  same  way.  Generally 
external  manifestations  of  the  disorder  are  but  accom- 
paniments of  internal  changes. 

In  speaking  of  the  lesions  of  phthisis,  we  have  al- 
luded to  the  scrofulous  ulcer  of  mucous  membranes. 
It  occurs  not  infrequently  in  the  larynx  (tubercular 
laryngitis),  and  animals  fed  with,  tuberculous  matter 
almost  always  exhibit  lesions  of  this  nature  throughout 
the  length  of  the  alimentary  canal.  Green  tells  us  that 
the  development  of  tuberculous  nodules  in  these  ulcers  is 
secondary  to  a  hyperplasia  of  the  lymphoid  tissue  of  the 
mucous  membranes,  which  leads  to  formation  of  an  ulcer, 
with  thick  and  prominent  margins,  in  the  bottom  of 
which  the  nodules  appear.  In  the  intestine  these  changes 
have  their  seat  especially  in  the  solitary  Peyer's  glands, 
which  also  are  affected  in  typhoid  fever.  The  tubercular 
differs  from  the  typhoid  ulcer  in  that  ^^  its  edges  and  base 
are  thickened  and  indurated.  And  the  tuberculous 
nodules,  tending  to  become  caseous,  are  seen  scattered  over 
its  floor.^^  The  nodules  develope  around  the  blood-vessels. 
It  seems  these  changes  of  the  mucous  membrane  are  brought 
about  by  actual  contact  with  diseased  matter  (Gerlach). 


DISEASES    OP   THE    BLOOD.  131 

Pleueo-pneumonia  zymotica,  vgI  Contagiosa,  vel  Exu- 
dativa— "  Lung  disease.''  Pleuro-j  Perijpneumonia  is  a 
specific  disease  affecting  only  horned  cattle  (some  say 
also  the  deer),  spreading  with  rapidity  in  consequence  of 
its  highly  infectious  characters,  and  causing  remarkable 
changes  of  the  lungs  and  pleura.  At  first  introduced  into 
this  country  by  importation  of  diseased  animals,  it  has 
now  become  domiciled  here,  and  destroys  large  numbers  of 
British  cattle.  Sometimes  a  case  of  apparently  sporadic 
pleuro-pneumonia  occurs  in  a  neighbourhood,  and  results 
in  an  enzootic  outbreak.  The  animal  first  affected  has, 
perhaps,  recently  arrived  in  this  part  of  the  country,  her 
history  being  unknown ;  or,  having  been  purchased  from 
a  known  farm,  this  on  inquiry  may  turn  out  to  have  been 
invaded  by  the  disease.  Unfortunately,  the  period  of  incu- 
bation of  pleuro-pneumonia  is  long,  ranging  even  from  two 
weeks  to  two  months,  or  even  more  than  six  months  (Walley). 
While  this  lasts,  changes  are  going  on  in  the  lungs,  and 
certainly  during  the  later  periods  of  incubation  the  dis- 
ease is  communicable  from  one  animal  to  another.  The 
general  means  of  communication  is  by  infection  {i.e.  through 
the  air).  Many  animals  in  a  herd  manifest  immunity,  but 
beasts  of  all  ages  and  sexes  are  liable  to  take  the  disor- 
der. They  may  be  rendered  more  susceptible  by  exposure 
to  severe  weather,  bad  feeding,  an  insanitary  condition 
of  cowsheds,  &c.,  and  by  some  authorities  it  has  been 
supposed  that  such  conditions  may  result  in  spontaneous 
origin  of  the  disorder ;  this,  however,  can  hardly  be,  for 
countries  where  sanitary  measures  for  domesticated 
animals  were  scarcely  thought  of  and  never  carried  out, 
remained  free  from  lung  complaint.  The  contagium  pro- 
bably enters  the  system  through  the  respiratory  organs, 
for,  as  we  shall  see,  it  has  been  determined  that  the 
bronchial  mucous  membrane  is  the  seat  of  primary  lesion. 
The  blood  is  not  seriously  contaminated,  for  it  has  been 
found  that  transfusion  will  not  communicate  the  disease 
(this,  however,  requires  to  be  verified),  and  animals  fed 
on  portions  of  diseased  lungs  did  not  take  the  disease, 
showing  that  it  is  not  readily  communicable  through   the 


132  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

alimentary  tract.  Until  quite  recently  tlie  analogy  of  this 
disorder  with  other  specific  diseases  was  a  matter  of 
obscurity,  but  recent  pathological  researches,  notably  those 
of  Dr.  Yeo,  have  thrown  important  light  upon  the  subject. 
An  infected  animal  introduced  into  a  pasture,  or  into  a 
cowshed,  remains  apparently  well  for  a  long  enough  time 
to  communicate  the  disease  to  others.  If  careful  thermome- 
tric  examinations  are  made  daily,  the  temperature  of  some 
of  these  will  be  found  to  rise  as  high  as  103°  F.— 104^  F., 
but  102°  is  suspicious  (especially  if  accompanied  by  sudden 
improvement  in  condition)-,  and  calls  for  prompt  isolation 
and  disinfection.  This  rise  in  the  temperature  takes 
place  some  days  before  the  disease  manifests  itself.  It 
ushers  itself  in  slowly  and  stealthily.  There  are  visible  the 
ordinary  signs  of  ill-health,  separation  from  the  herd,  un- 
thrif  tiness,  and  staring  condition  of  the  coat,  and  an  irregular 
condition  of  the  bowels,  appetite,  and  rumination,  together 
with  diminution  of  milk.  Auscultation  will  enable  us  to 
detect,  often  in  only  one  lung,  the  mucous  rale.  The 
respiratory  efforts  are  slightly  more  frequent  than  in 
health,  and  there  is  a  cough  which  at  first  is  only  obser- 
vable after  drinking  and  in  the  morning  and  evening,  or 
when  the  patient  is  hustled,  or  pressure  applied  between 
the  ribs,  disappearing  during  the  middle  of  the  day.  The 
second  stage  is  marked  by  more  decided  fever,  the  cough 
is  more  persistent,  harsh,  and  frequent.  The  respirations 
are  quickened  and  laboured,  and  the  expirations  are 
accompanied  by  a  pathognomonic  grunt;  the  animal 
generally  stands  with  muzzle  protruded,  dilated  nostrils, 
and  heaving  flanks.  The  breath  also  becomes  foetid. 
There  is  a  watery  discharge  from  the  nose  and  eyes,  which 
later  assumes  a  purulent  character,  and  is  of  an  unpleasant 
odour.  The  skin,  already  dry,  harsh,  and  tight,  now 
becomes  yellow  and  dirty.  The  pulse  at  first  beats  firmly, 
and  is  full  though  fast  (70  or  80).  Afterwards  it  becomes 
very  small  and  scarcely  perceptible.  The  back  is  arched, 
and  pressure  on  the  loins  produces  shrinking ;  percussion 
of  the  intercostal  spaces  is  evidently  very  painful,  for  it 
causes  the  patient  to  moan,  and  the  sound  yielded  is  dull 


DISEASES    OF    THE    BLOOD. 


133 


and  devoid  of  healtty  resonance.  Auscultation  determines 
dulness,  more  or  less  marked  in  certain  parts  of  the 
tliorax,  this  being  dependent  either  upon  fluid  in  the 
chest  or  lung  consolidation.  Sometimes  only  one  lung  is 
affected,  then  there  is  increased  resonance  in  the  other ; 
also  a  "  friction  sound,"  indicative  of  pleuritic  changes,  is 
present.  With  the  progress  of  the  disorder  the  milk 
becomes  reduced  to  a  very  small  quantity,  and  sometimes 
entirely  suppressed.  There  is  expulsion  of  colourless, 
or  -white,  pale,  straw-coloured  and  blood-tinged  casts, 
by  coughing  or  expectoration  (Walley).  The  bowels  remain 
constipated,  as  before,  until  the  mouth  becomes  clammy, 
and  signs  of  debility  (cedematous  swellings,  diarrhoea,  hoven, 
and  pallor  of  mucous  membranes,  &c.)  usher  in  death. 

Post-mortem  examination. — No  appreciable  alteration  in 
the  blood  except  such  changes  as  are  characteristic  of  dimi- 
nished excretion  and  anaemia.  Pathological  conditions  ob- 
servable only  in  the  thoracic  viscera.  The  pleura  presents 
extensive  false  membranes,  and  its  sac  is  full  of  serous  fluid 
of  a  somewhat  milky  colour,  with  numerous  shreds  of  lymph 
floating  about  in  it.  Adhesions  unite  the  pleura  pulmonalis 
to  pleura  costalis,  and  the  deposits  have  a  markedly  plastic 


Fig.  22. —  Incipient  Pleuro  pneumonia  epiznotica.  a.  Diseased  patches  as 
seen  from  the  surface,  b.  A  section  into  the  healthy  and  diseased  parts. 
(Simonds.) 


character 
is    pus 


m 


Occasionally,  it  is  said,  but  very  rarely,  there 
the    pleural    sac.       The    membrane    itself    is 


134 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


thickened,  opaque,  and  varying  in  colour  in  different  parts. 
The  pericardium  is  also  involved ;  the  intercostal  muscles 
are  darkened.  The  lungs  are  the  main  seat  of  disease ; 
sometimes  only  one  of  them  (generally  the  right)  is  affected, 
and  there  is  disease  of    only  one  pleura  (see  Fig.  23). 


Fio.  23.  — Pleuro-pneumonia  zymotica.     Elglifc  lung  affected,     c.  Interlobu- 
lar  bands,     d.  Lobules.     (Simonds.) 

A  distinctive  peculiarity  of  the  lesions  of  the  lungs 
is  their  circumscribed  character,  whereby  a  diseased 
portion  exhibiting  very  marked  changes  may  lie  against 
a  piece  which  is  either  but  little  affected  or  even  healthy. 
Hence  results   the  well-known  mottled  condition  of  the 


DISEASES    OP   THE    BLOOD.  135 

section  of  a  pleuro-pneumonic  lung.  The  diseased  organ 
is  consolidated^  and  hence  very  remarkably  increased  in 
weight.  This  depends  upon  extravasation  of  gelatinous 
material  into  the  interlobular  areolar  tissue^  whereby  the 
yellow  bands  of  the  section  are  produced.  Lymphy 
deposits  plug  up  the  bronchial  tubes.  The  lobules  are 
congested,  presenting  a  reddish-brown  colour,  or  altered  by 
deposition  of  gelatinous  matter  in  the  lobular  areolar 
tissue.  Sometimes  the  pulmonary  cells  have  collapsed, 
yielding  to  the  surrounding  pressure  ;  at  other  parts  they 
are  filled  with  deposits,  and  are  in  the  condition  termed 
hepatization.  The  bronchial  lymphatic  glands  are  en- 
larged by  gelatinous  deposit.  The  lung  in  the  early  stage 
presents  only  circumscribed  hardened  portions,  owing  their 
solidity  to  gelatinous  effusion  (see  Fig.  22).  In  the  later 
stages  the  part  which  is  most  extensively  involved  is  gan- 
grenous and  friable,  and  of  a  greenish  colour  and  putrid 
odour.  The  diseased  lungs  in  every  case  have  a  special 
sickening  odour.  The  excellency  and  thoroughness  of 
Professor  Yeo^s  work  will  render  his  summary  interesting 
to  our  readers,  and  must  be  an  apology  for  its  insertion  : 

"  To  recapitulate,  then — 

"  The  various  items  in  the  pathological  sequence  may 
be  thus  enumerated  : 

^'1.  Irritation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  smaller 
bronchi,  probably  by  some  infective  material  (specific 
virus  ?). 

"2.  Chronic  ulcerative  bronchitis,  localised  to  a  few 
minute  bronchi. 

"  3.   Occlusion  of  the  affected  air- tubes. 

"  4.  This  produces  such  changes  in  the  air-cells  belong- 
ing to  the  affected  tubes  that  the  lobular  parenchyma 
becomes  solid. 

"5.  As  the  bronchial  disease  progresses  the  walls  of  the 
air-tubes  become  thickened  and  infiltrated  with  the  pro- 
ducts of  chronic  inflammation. 

*^  6.  The  peri-bronchial  lymphatics  are  implicated  by  the 
extension  of  the  infective  process  from  the  bronchus,  and 
are  soon  filled  with  dense  exudation. 


136  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

"  7.  The  block  in  the  lymphatics  of  the  broncho- vascular 
system  impedes  the  flow  of  lymph  from  the  corresponding 
territory. 

"  8.  The  tributary  lymph  channels  are  thus  mechanically 
engorged,  and  at  the  same  time  they  are  irritated  by 
infective  materials. 

''9.  The  inflammation  of  all  the  coats  of  the  air-tube 
gradually  spreads  towards  the  root  of  the  lung. 

"  Thus,  we  have  a  deep-seated  cone  of  typical  consolida- 
tion, traversed  by  numerous  wide  whitish  lines,  corre- 
sponding to  the  swollen  interlobular  connective  tissue 
(marbling).  In  fact,  the  essential  features  of  the  disease 
are  all  established. 

"  The  morbid  process  seldom  stops  here  however.  It 
spreads  in  two  ways.  First,  by  the  broncho-vascular 
lymph  passages  : 

"  1.  The  irritating  and  infective  materials  find  their  way 
along  the  lymphatics  towards  the  root  of  the  lung,  follow- 
ing the  normal  course  of  the  lymph  stream. 

'^  2.  The  wall  of  the  bronchus  becomes  affected  after  a 
time  by  the  irritative  matter  in  its  surrounding  lym- 
phatics. 

"  3.  The  lymphatics  of  tributary  bronchial  tubes,  met 
with  as  the  disease  thus  advances,  are  choked,  and  the 
drainage  of  their  territory  impeded. 

"  4.  The  interlobular  lymph  spaces  of  the  newly  affected 
territory  soon  become  filled  with  exudation.  Thus,  the 
clear  kind  of  consolidation  is  produced. 

"  Secondly,  by  the  pleura : 

"  1.  The  pleura  becomes  affected  over  the  focus  of  con- 
solidation by  means  of  the  subjacent  lymphatics. 

''  2.  The  pleurisy  soon  extends  far  beyond  this  limited 
region,  or  the  serous  membrane  becomes  generally  in- 
flamed. 

"  3.  The  inflamed  pleura  infective  materials  reach  the 
lymphatics  beneath  it,  and  also  those  lying  between  the 
neighbouring  superficial  lobules. 

"4.  Extending  along  the  interlobular  lympathics,  the 
irritation    and   exudation   may  pass   towards    the   deeper 


DISEASES    OP    THE    BLOOD.  137 

parts,  so  that  an  immense  tract  of  lung  is  converted  into 
a  semi-translucent  mass,  with  swollen  interlobular  spaces. 
The  consolidation  formed  in  any  of  these  ways  may  become 
intense  induration  if  the  animal  live  long  enough. 

''  With  regard  to  the  origin  of  the  disease  of  the  vessel- 
wall,  we  must  also  start  from  the  peri-bronchial  disease. 

"  1.  The  lymphatics  of  the  bronchus  readily  allow  the 
morbid  products  to  pass  to  those  immediately  around  the 
vessels. 

'^  2.  The  wall  of  the  vessel  becomes  greatly  thickened  by 
chronic  inflammatory  products. 

''  3.  The  inner  coat,  which  resists  the  disease  for  some 
time,  ultimately  becomes  diseased  in  small  patches. 

''  4.  The  blood  coagulates  over  the  diseased  inner  coat, 
and  may  occlude  a  small  branch  at  its  origin,  or  even  the 
entire  vessel. 

*^  5.  Particles  of  the  clot  may  break  off,  and,  passing 
into  the  minute  arteries,  form  these  embolic  plugs. 

'^  6.  Thus  numerous  arteries  of  varying  size  may  be 
stopped  up. 

"  7.  The  most  varied  forms  of  hsemorrhagic  infarction 
are  thus  produced. 

"  8.  The  infarction  may  become  gangrenous,  cheesy,  or 
may  dry  up  into  a  crumbling  mass. 

"  9.  A  capsule  may  form  around  the  most  diseased  part, 
and  shut  it  off  from  the  rest  of  the  lung." 

Thus  we  are  advanced  a  stage  in  our  knowledge  of  the 
pathology  of  this  disorder.  We  see  that  in  it,  as  in  other 
specific  affections,  the  poison  localises  itself  in  a  special 
tissue,  and  there  originates  specific  lesions.  Sometimes 
the  disorder  rapidly  runs  its  course,  leading  to  death  from 
congestion  of  the  lungs  ;  more  frequently  it  progresses 
as  above  described,  lasts  for  six  weeks  or  two  months, 
and  causes  death  by  anaemia.  In  other  cases,  making  an 
average  which  varies  much  (from  20  per  cent,  to  70  per 
cent.)'  in  different  outbreaks,  recovery  takes  place.  The 
animal  passes  through  a  prolonged  convalescence,  during 
which,  it  is  said,  he  is  capable  of  communicating  the  disease, 
and  ultimately  may  be  fattened  for  the  butcher.      Animals 


138  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

wliicli  have  recovered  from  an  attack  are  exempt  from  the 
disorder  in  future.  When  an  animal  has  been  slaughtered 
after  recovery  from  pleuro-pneumonia,  his  lungs  will  be 
found  to  exhibit  traces  of  the  diseased  action.  Old  ad- 
hesions to  the  walls  of  the  thorax^  consolidation,  atrophy 
of  certain  parts ;  while  often,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
portion  of  the  lung  which  formed  the  main  seat  of 
disease  has  been  thrown  off  as  a  slough,  and  encapsuled 
by  lymph ;  or  it  may  have  become  calcified.  An  im- 
portant question  for  the  verification  of  our  diagnosis  here 
presents  itself.  How  are  we  to  distinguish  the  lungs  in 
this  disease  from  those  presenting  the  conditions  observed 
in  sporadic  inflammation  of  the  lungs  and  pleura  ?  Many 
skilful  veterinary  pathologists  state  that  in  some  cases  of 
sporadic  disease  the  marbled  state  of  the  lung  occurs,  and 
that  hence  we  are  not  in  a  position,  from  simple  inspection 
of  a  portion  of  lung,  to  determine  the  nature  of  the  case. 
Generally  the  sporadic  disorder  affects  both  lungs,  and  the 
stage  of  the  disease  is  uniform  throughout,  we  cannot 
note  the  abrupt  transitions  found  in  the  infectious  disease  ; 
also  the  lymphatic  glands  are  not  so  much  involved.  The 
history  of  the  case  will  assist  us  in  our  inquiry.  During 
life  sporadic  cases  differ  from  specific  in  that  they  are 
more  acute,  cannot  be  traced  to  contagion,  and  may 
generally  be  put  down  to  some  other  cause  of  a  non- 
specific nature.  Also  abortion  takes  place  ;  the  grunt  is 
present  (see  Walley,  "  Four  Bovine  Scourges,^^  for  a  full 
list  of  distinguishing  features). 

Cases  of  pleuro-pneumonia  are  liable  to  be  confused  in 
diagnosis  with  those  of  pleural  scrofulous  deposits  known 
as  "  grapes.''^  Professor  Williams  considers  that  these 
deposits  are  very  frequently  due  to  changes  of  pleuritic 
adhesions,  and  says  that  cough  during  swallowing  is 
diagnostic  of  their  presence,  for  they  tend  to  compress 
the  oesophagus.  His  views  are  not  generally  accepted.  In 
some  cases  the  differential  diagnosis  of  these  two  conditions 
is  very  unsatisfactory.  The  history  of  the  case  will  help 
us,   and  we  must  carefully  look  for  any  scrofulous  lesions. 

Treatment. — Sometimes,    during    an    enzootic    of    this 


DISEASES    OF    THE    BLOOD.  139 

affection,  animals  fall  sick,  are  feverisli  for  a  short  time, 
and  then  resume  their  originally  healthy  state.  Probably 
they  have  been  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  virus,  and 
nature  has  enabled  them  to  throw  it  off.  Some  autho- 
rities, during  the  more  acute  periods  of  the  attack,  recom- 
mend application  of  blisters  to  the  side,  a  cathartic  dose, 
and  even  bleeding  when  performed  early.  It  is  question- 
able whether  these  measures  prove  beneficial,  except  by 
debilitating  the  patient,  and  so  shortening  the  case.  More 
success  seems  to  have  attended  the  administration  of  mineral 
tonics,  especially  the  Cupri  Ammonio- Sulphas,  together  with 
stimulants,  eliminatives,  and  hyposulphites ;  also  attention 
must  be  paid  to  careful  nursing.  Isolation  of  diseased  and 
suspected  animals,  and  disinfection,  are  most  useful  prophy- 
lactic means,  and  the  administration  of  iron  tonics  has  been 
suggested.  It  is  often  best  in  the  long  run  to  stamp  out  an 
outbreak.  The  Contagious  Diseases  (Animals)  Acts  require 
special  measures  for  eradication  and  prevention  of  spread. 

An  animal  after  recovery  should  not  be  reintroduced 
into  the  herd  before  the  lapse  of  three  months,  and  the 
virus  is  said  to  be  potent  for  as  much  as  six  months  after 
the  animaVs  death. 

Inoculation, — It  had  been  noticed  that  one  attack  of 
certain  blood  diseases  ensures  immunity  more  or  less 
permanent  against  a  second  of  the  same  disorder.  It  was 
therefore  suggested  that  a  first  attack  of  a  mild  character 
might  be  artificially  induced  by  direct  introduction  of 
morbific  material  into  the  system.  This  was  first  tried 
with  smallpox  in  man,  and  succeeded  in  so  far  as  im- 
munity was  secured ;  but  the  disease  as  artificially  gene- 
rated proved  severe,  communicable,  and  frequently  even 
fatal.  The  practice  of  inoculation  was  falling  into  dis- 
repute when  Jenner's  observations  of  the  diseases  of 
animals  in  relation  to  those  of  man  enabled  him  to  dis- 
cover vaccination.  Here  an  artificially  induced  attack  of 
a  very  mild  disorder  acts  as  a  prophylactic  against  a  more 
severe  one  of  not  the  same,  but  a  closely  allied  disease. 
Vaccination  has  been  tried  haphazard  for  certain  diseases 
of   lower    animals,    in    no   case  with   markedly  beneficial 


140  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

effect.  Inoculation  for  pleuro-pneumonia  is  at  present 
much  advocated  by  professionals  and  non-professionals. 
It  is  performed  by  taking  the  lungs  of  an  animal  which 
has  died  in  the  early  stage  of  the  disorder,  cutting  up  the 
diseased  yellowish  portions  of  lung,  and  allowing  a  serous 
fluid  to  escape  and  accumulate  in  a  vessel.  This  is  the 
lymph.  Some  of  it  is  injected  subcutaneously  with  a 
syringe,  or  shreds  of  cotton  steeped  in  it  are  inserted 
into  the  tail  near  its  tip;  the  shreds  are  removed  after 
twenty-four  hours.  Subsequently,  in  favorable  cases,  a 
considerable  amount  of  swelling  occurs  here,  and  may 
extend  up  the  tail  to  the  quarters  of  the  patient,  giving 
rise  to  violent  inflammation  of  the  caudal  appendage, 
which  often  results  in  the  end  of  the  tail  sloughing  and 
gangrene  involving  even  the  upper  parts  of  the  hind  ex- 
tremities. Cases  of  this  kind  are  common  in  dairies 
where  the  animals  have  been  inoculated.  It  is  necessary 
to  amputate  the  tail  when  gangrene  sets  in.  Causse 
describes  pustules  of  the  size  of  a  franc-piece  as  resulting 
from  inoculation.  Intravenous  injection  of  virus  has  not 
been  found  effectual.  The  irritative  fever  depending  on 
these  processes  is  sometimes  fatal.  To  understand 
whether  this  means  is  prophylactic,  we  must  put  it  to  the 
crucial  test  by  exposing  animals  which  have  been  inocu- 
lated to  contagion ;  some  of  them  succumb.  These,  the 
advocates  of  inoculation  urge,  did  not  thoroughly  take,  or 
had  the  seeds  of  the  disease  in  them  before  they  were 
operated  upon.  They  say  that  where  the  process  is  syste- 
matically carried  out  pleuro-pneumonia  has  almost  disap- 
peared ;  though  their  opponents  will  not  admit  this.  That 
inoculation  does  not  produce  pleuro-pneumonia  they  allow, 
but  believe  that  it  expends  itself  in  producing  changes  at 
the  seat  of  inoculation,  while  the  system  is  imperceptibly 
affected  and  immunity  secured.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
urged  that  inoculation  does  not  cause  any  general  dis- 
order except  sympathetic  fever,  and  cannot,  therefore,  be 
useful ;  that  it  causes  a  certain  loss  by  the  ill  effects 
which  result  from  it ;  that  the  practice  is  based  neither  on 
a  sound  theoretical  nor  practical  views.      The  ill   effects 


DISEASES    OF    THE    BLOOD.  141 

consequent  upon  the  operation  are  reduced  to  a  minimum 
when  it  is  properly  performed^  the  exuded  matter  from 
the  lungs  being  fresh,  devoid  of  gangrenous  material,  and 
introduced  in  a  proper  manner.  The  so-called  sympa- 
thetic fever  may  be  somewhat  specific,  and  it  must  be 
remembered  that  in  ordinary  cases  of  the  disease  the  blood 
has  been  found  remarkably  free  from  virulent  properties, 
so  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  disease  may  take  place  after 
inoculation,  and  run  its  course  at  the  seat  of  puncture, 
without  the  lungs  becoming  involved  specially.  A  slight 
cough  is  said  to  frequently  succeed  the  inoculation,  and 
cases  are  on  record  of  origination  of  pleuro-pneumonia 
from  inoculated  animals.  Cattle  owners,  as  a  rule,  have 
strong  faith  in  inoculation.  The  experiments  which  have 
been  most  carefully  conducted  in  this  country  have  failed 
to  show  that  it  is  beneficial.  These  have  been  rather  on 
a  small  scale,  and  are,  therefore,  not  conclusive.  The 
important  question  of  inoculation  as  a  prophylactic  means 
is  not  settled.  It  seems  to  have  been  proved  that  the 
flesh  in  this  disease  is  not  prejudicial  to  man  except  in 
the  advanced  stages;  the  milk,  too,  has  been  consumed 
freely  without  any  ill  effects  resulting.  There  seems, 
then,  no  true  reason  why  flesh  and  milk  should  not  be 
utilised.  Of  course,  thorough  cooking  should  be  in- 
sisted on. 

Pleuro-pneumonia  has  been  considered  the  pathological 
equivalent  of  rubeola  or  measles  of  the  human  subject,  and 
of  typhoid  fever  of  the  pig.  No  evidence  of  any  weight 
has  been  advanced  in  support  of  these  theories. 

Eczema  epizootica,  v.  Contagiosa,  Aphtha  epizootica. 
Vesicular  epizootic,  Muerain,  Foot-and-mouth  disease^  &c., 
is  a  specific  eruptive  disorder,  panzootic  in  its  characters, 
and  has  been  prevalent  in  all  parts  of  this  country  at  dif- 
ferent times,  having  been  first  imported  from  abroad  about 
1839.  Its  special  lesions  consist  in  vesicae,  which  may 
occur  on  any  mucous  membrane,  but  especially  affect  that 
of  the  mouth.  The  skin  of  the  inter-digital  space  also  is 
the  special  seat  of  disorder. 

Symptoms. — After  an  animal  has  been  exposed  to  con- 


142  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

tagious  influences,  the  incubation  lasts  from  twenty-four 
hours  to  four  days  ;  and  the  first  appreciable  alteration  of 
the  normal  conditions  of  the  animal  is  a  gradual  rise  in 
temperature.  This  may  be  so  marked  that  the  ther- 
mometer at  the  maximum  may  reach  107°  F.  Shivering 
and  other  febrile  signs  are  present  in  the  first  stage  of 
the  disorder,  the  mouth  is  sore  and  has  hanging  from  it 
a  little  viscid  mucus,  the  animal  does  not  feed,  grinds  its 
teeth,  and  exhibits  general  signs  of  ill  health,  the  bowels 
are  constipated,  and  the  breath  fostid.  This  lasts  for 
about  two  days,  and  then  the  characteristic  eruptions 
appear.  In  the  mouth  they  occupy  the  dental  pad,  the 
gums,  lateral  parts  and  dorsum  of  the  tongue  and  the 
palate;  generally  rounded  or  oval,  they  are  of  consider- 
able size,  averaging  about  that  of  a  shilling,  but  often  as 
large  as  half-a-crown.  They  consist  of  elevations  of  the 
somewhat  dense  epithelium,  which  is  softened  and  macerated 
by  the  saliva,  and  so  rendered  white.  Soon  they  are 
broken  by  the  action  of  the  tongue  and  other  influences, 
and  a  red  raw  surface  is  exposed.  The  discharge  of 
saliva  is  now  profuse,  and  hangs  in  shreds  from  the  mouth, 
or  collects  like  foam  around  that  opening.  There  is  a 
peculiar  smacking  of  the  lips  to  get  rid  of  this.  Some- 
times smaller  vesicae  appear  on  the  transitional  membrane 
of  the  muffle,  and  in  some  cases  the  nostrils  are  similarly 
diseased.  There  are  vesicles  developed  on  the  udder  in 
milch  cows,  which  especially  affect  the  teats,  and  some- 
times the  diseased  action  is  said  to  involve  even  the 
lining  membrane  of  the  milk  ducts.  These  mammary 
vesicles  are  ruptured  by  the  calf,  or  their  contents 
become  absorbed  and  a  dark  brown  scab  remains,  and 
aggregation  or  confluence  of  these  vesic99  may  take  place. 
The  lesions  of  the  feet  are  preceded  by  pain,  manifested 
by  restlessness,  frequent  lifting  and  shaking  of  fore  and 
hind  feet,  and  the  back  is  arched  and  thus  all  four  feet 
brought  together.  Swelling  of  the  coronet  appears,  and 
is  quickly  followed  by  the  development  of  vesicae,  gene- 
rally between  the  digits,  but  often  extending  almost  all 
round    the    coronet.       There    is     considerable    lameness. 


DISEASES   OF   THE    BLOOD.  143 

aud   tlie  animal  lies  somewhat  persistently.      Here,  also, 
the  vesicles  rupture.      The  serous  fluid,  when   exposed  to 
the    air,    dries  and   forms    a   yellowish  layer  of    material 
which   readily  pulverises.      The  last  stage  is  marked  by 
disappearance    of    acute    febrile    symptoms,    increase    in 
quantity  of  milk,  which  has  been  much  reduced,  oblitera- 
tion of  the  exposed  surfaces  by  development  of  new  epi- 
thelium and  cessation  of  lameness.      Sometimes  the  disease 
assumes  a  more  virulent  type,  dependent  upon  defective 
hygienic  arrangements,  or  upon  obscure  climatic  influences. 
Then  the  nasal,  laryngeal,  conjunctival,  bronchial,  gastric, 
and  duodenal  mucous  membranes  present  vesicao  ;  the  anus 
and  vulva  are  similarly  affected ;   there  is  a  tendency  to 
sloughing   of   parts   in  connection   with  the  vesicae,   and 
extensive  removals  of   epithelium.      In  such  cases  young 
animals  will  die  before  the  eruptive  stage^  the  only  lesions 
manifested  on  post-mortem  examination  beinff>??5^^etion 
of    the   lungs  j   while    older   animals    suffer  MWm    severe    /^^ 
irritative  fever,  rapidly  lose   flesh,  and  are  Maol^'  fo.jgiin-^'^^^    '/^  , 
cumb   from   exhaustion.      In   these  cases,  tolL^^ere  ^^ii^j> 
marked    liability    to    the    various  comj)licatim^^-0^p^3       "*  T ^ 
disorder.      In  whatever  part  they  occur  the  vesicseSi^ii/tfJ^J'Ii^. 
associated  with  acute  inflammatory  action  of  deeper  tissue^T" 
such  as  glossitis  leading  to  extensive  sloughing  or  indura- 
tion, mammitis,  and  inflammation  of  the  structures  of  the 
foot,  with  production  of  sinuous  ulcers  and  a  tendency  to 
sloughing  of  the  claws,  open  joint,  and  casting  of  the  hoofs. 

Mammitis  may  result  either  from  extension  of  inflam- 
mation along  the  lining  membrane  of  the  ducts  of  the  milk 
glands,  or  from  a  blocking  up  of  the  openings  of  the  ducts 
leading  to  over-distension  with  milk.  Abscesses,  indura- 
tion, and  blind  teats  supervene  upon  these  cases,  also  the 
frequent  irritation  in  milking  a  cow  with  sore  teats  may 
render  her  permanently  vicious. 

When  the  alimentary  mucous  membrane  is  involved 
in  the  disease  diarrhoea  replaces  the  constipation  which 
is  generally  present.  CEdematous  swellings,  too,  some- 
times are  manifested.  In  each  of  these  latter  com- 
plications   there   is    extreme    debility.      Under    ordinary 


144  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

circumstances  the  prognosis  must  be  favorable,  as  re- 
covery will  take  place  after  from  eight  to  twelve  or 
fifteen  days  from  the  premonitory  rise  of  temperature. 
The  various  complications  which  we  have  just  noticed 
necessarily  protract  the  case,  but  our  prognosis,  too,  must 
include  grave  loss  to  the  owner,  especially  when  milch 
cows  are  affected.  From  the  first  stage  of  the  attack  the 
milk  is  yellow  in  colour  and  gradually  diminishes  in 
quantity  until  it  becomes  about  one  fifth  the  natural  yield. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  low,  1024,  and  it  generally  has  a  fair 
proportion  of  cream.  White  corpuscles,  having  the 
characters  of  pus-globules,  are  always  present,  their 
number  varying  with  the  severity  of  the  symptoms. 
Some  of  these  were  seen  three  weeks  after  recovery. 
Monads  and  bacteria  were  observed  in  every  specimen, 
and  remained  unaffected  by  boiling  (Professor  Brown). 
The  produce  of  a  dairy,  then,  is  venj  seriously  diminished 
by  an  attack  of  eczema.  In  the  severer  forms,  too, 
abortion  occurs,  and  in  all  cases  the  animals  are  very  much 
reduced  in  condition  ;  10  per  cent,  is  given  as  the  average 
loss  by  death  when  the  disease  is  most  severe.  One  attack 
of  this  disorder  does  not  secure  immunity  from  others  ;  it 
is  not  rare  to  see  animals  which  have  been  affected  three 
times.  From  cattle,  who  are  especially  affected  by  it,  and 
are  the  most  important  bearers  of  contagion,  it  will 
spread  to  the  sheep,  pig,  poultry,  and  also  to  the  human 
subject  and  the  horse.  The  cases  which  have  been 
recorded  can  leave  no  doubt  of  this  latter  fact.  The  con- 
tagion is  both  fixed  and  volatile,  so  that  the  disease  is 
contagious  and  infectious.  The  characters  of  the  materies 
morbi  have  not  yet  been  determined.  Professor  Brown 
mentions  the  occurrence  in  the  blood  and  other  fluids  of 
monads,  bacteria,  and  vibriones^  but  does  not  attribute  a 
specific  influence  to  any  of  the  observed  forms.  The 
viruliferous  principle  resides  in  its  most  concentrated 
form  in  the  saliva.  In  1839,  Professor  Simonds  com- 
municated the  disease  by  feeding  an  animal  on  hay 
saturated  with  saliva ;  vesicles  appeared  in  the  mouth  in 
forty   hours.       He   also   found  that    warm   milk   from   a 


DISEASES    OF    THE    BLOOD.  145 

diseased  cow  given  to  pigs  generated  the  disease.  Thus, 
it  seems  that  the  virus  may  gain  entry  into  the  system 
through  almost  any  mucous  membrane.  Nature  endeavours 
to  throw  off  the  contagium  after  it  has  entered  into  the 
blood  through  the  mucous  membranes  and  such  parts  of 
the  skin  as  we  have  indicated  as  being  involved.  Inocu- 
lations at  first  failed,  but  Contamine  produced  the  disease 
by  inoculation  of  the  mouth,  and  since  then  this  process 
has  been  resorted  to,  not  with  a  view  to  prevent  recurrence, 
but  in  order  to  ensure  all  animals  of  a  herd  being  simul- 
taneously affected,  whereby  the  period  of  isolation,  as  en- 
forced by  law,  is  shortened.  This  inoculation  is  a  measure 
of  questionable  value,  since  some  animals  might  have 
escaped  by  proper  segregation  and  disinfection,  and  also 
the  same  animal  may  be  several  times  affected.  The  virus 
may  be  conveyed  by  attendants  or  by  appliances  ;  also  it  is 
said  to  be  carried  for  a  distance  of  120  yards,  but  this  pro- 
bably depends  upon  the  direction  of  prevailing  winds  and 
other  atmospheric  influences.  The  virus  is  said  to  retain 
its  vitality  for  at  least  three  months. 

Diagnosis. — Eczema  epizootica  may  be  confounded  with 
aphtha  simplex,  and  undoubtedly  has  been  by  some 
authors.  The  latter  appears  under  an  enzootic  form, 
dependent  upon  special  characters  of  the  food.  The 
lesions  are  confined  to  the  mouth,  and  consist  of  very 
numerous  true  vesicas,  surrounded  by  an  areola  or  ring 
of  redness,  due  to  inflammation,  and  pointed.  These 
contrast  markedly  with  the  large  blebs  of  eczema  epi- 
zootica, which  are  few  in  number,  and  occur  in  definite 
positions.  A  difficulty  is  presented  to  inspectors  in  the 
later  stages  of  this  disorder  in  determining  whether  foot 
lesions  are  specific  or  simply  due  to  the  disease  called  foul. 
Complicated  foot  lesions  succeeding  eczema  are  really  one 
form  of  foul.  All  chronic  cases  of  this  kind  may  be 
passed  as  incapable  of  communicating  the  disease.  The 
same  remark  applies  to  glossitis  and  disease  of  the 
mammary  gland. 

Treatment,  as  in  other  eruptive  disorders,  must  be 
directed  to  avoidance  of  complications  and  assistance  of 

10 


146  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

nature^s  efforts  to  expel  the  contagium.  To  remove  the 
causes  we  must  divide  the  herd  into  diseased,  suspected, 
and  unsuspected  lots.  The  latter  should  be  examined 
daily  to  detect  any  rise  of  internal  temperature ;  the 
suspected  should  be  isolated  and  drafted  into  the  diseased 
lot  as  they  become  affected.  Disinfection  should  be 
rigidly  enforced,  and  the  animals  not  removed  from 
quarantine  until  about  a  week  after  the  last  case  of  disease 
has  been  removed  from  among  them.  The  diseased  should 
have  soft  diet  as  much  as  possible,  and  those  but  slightly 
affected  require  little  more  attention.  Where  the  patients 
are  seriously  debilitated  they  will  require  tonics.  When 
the  eruptions  on  the  teats  tend  to  block  up  the  milk 
passages,  the  milk  must  be  drawn  off  with  the  syphon. 
When  the  udder  is  inflamed  it  must  be  duly  supported 
and  treated  as  in  ordinary  mammitis.  The  diseased  feet 
must  be  kept  as  clean  as  possible  and  protected  by 
bandages,  complications  receiving  the  attention  recom- 
mended in  '^  foul.''  Calves  ought  to  be  removed  from  cows 
affected  by  this  disorder  and  hand-fed  with  good  milk, 
for  these  young  animals  are  liable  to  suffer  severely  from 
the  disease,  the  whole  alimentary  tract  being  involved. 
Fairs,  markets,  and  other  centres  of  cattle  traffic  are  the 
sources  of  introduction  of  this  disease  into  farms ;  and 
high  roads  are  often  traversed  by  diseased  flocks  and  herds, 
which  thus  leave  virus  behind  them  for  those  that  follow. 
The  farmer  must  be  advised,  therefore,  to  keep  newly 
purchased  animals  away  from  the  rest  of  his  stock  for  a 
few  days  after  their  arrival,  to  avoid  pasturing  animals 
on  fields  bordering  on  high  roads  when  the  disease  is 
rife  in  the  neighbourhood,  and,  as  a  public  duty,  not  to 
place  diseased  animals  there ;  also  all  measures  of  disin- 
fection should  be  strictly  enforced.  Especially  the  same 
attendants  should  not  have  charge  of  both  sick  and  healthy 
animals.  Unless  sanitary  measures  be  strictly  enforced 
the  disease  may  assume  its  severest  forms. 

Post-mortem  examination  shows  the  mucous  membranes 
variously  involved  in  different  cases.  Thus,  the  larynx, 
nasal  chamber,  and   alimentary  canal,  sometimes  present 


DISEASES   OF   THE    BLOOD.  147 

vesicse  and  other  inflammatory  conditions.  Sometimes 
the  abrasions  of  the  palate  and  the  lesions  in  the  stomachs 
resemble  <*.those  observed  in  rinderpest.  Frequently 
hasmorrhagic  spots  are  observable  on  the  serous  membranes. 
In  fatal  cases  the  blood  is  anaemic.  When  extracted 
during  life  the  red  corpuscles  are  found  to  be  stellated, 
and  to  exhibit  changes  of  form.  White  corpuscles  are 
increased  in  number.  Bacteria  and  masses  of  living 
matter,  together  with  minute  spherical  bodies,  are  con- 
stantly present.  In  the  saliva  are  small  stellate  crystals 
and  actively  moving  monads.  In  the  fluid  from  the  vesicles, 
and  in  the  discharge  from  the  eyes,  are  monads,  bacteria, 
masses  of  germinal  matter,  and  large  nucleated  cells. 
We  owe  these  conclusions  to  Professor  Brown's  obser- 
vations. Abscess,  induration,  and  even  gangrene  of  the 
mammary  gland,  may  be  present.  Open  joints,  fistulous 
ulcers  burrowing  beneath  the  hoof,  and  extensive  sloughing, 
also  separation  of  the  hoofs,  may  follow  the  foot  disease. 

This  disease  is  certainly  communicable  to  man  through 
the  milk  ;  thus,  children  are  liable  to  become  affected. 
Suspected  milk  should  either  be  rejected  or  boiled  before 
consumption.  We  have  no  evidence  to  prove  that  the 
flesh  is  injurious  to  man.  Cases  are  on  record  where 
attendants  upon  diseased  animals  have  taken  the  disease. 
Since  it  is  intercommunicable  between  all  the  animals 
which  can  become  affected,  our  prophylactic  measures 
must  embrace  all  animals  on  the  farm.  By  law  animals 
affected  with  foot-and-mouth  disease,  or  herded  with 
affected  animals,  are  not  to  be  removed,  nor  are  animals 
from  contiguous  buildings,  except  for  immediate  slaughter 
under  the  regulations  of  the  local  authorities,  or  if  not  for 
slaughter,  under  permit  from  the  officer  of  the  local  autho- 
rities. All  sheds  occupied  are  to  be  disinfected  and 
cleansed. 

Rinderpest — Cattle  Plague — Puschima  (Hindustanee). 
— This  disorder  is  the  most  formidable  specific  disease  of 
cattle  j  it  is  enzootic  in  the  steppes  of  Russia,  China,  and 
it  seems,  also,  in  some  parts  of  Burmah,  occasionally  visits 
Great  Britain,  and  requires   most  active  measures  of  re- 


148  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

pression.  It  is  of  a  most  highly  infectious  and  contagious 
character,  affects  also  deer  and  sheep,  and  generally  gives 
rise  to  a  very  great  fatality,  estimated  at  90  per  cent. 
An  attack  here  proves  fatal  about  the  seventh  day  after 
the  first  manifestation  of  signs  of  the  disorder.  Its  period 
of  incubation  varies  somewhat  considerably,  in  some  cases 
being  supposed  to  extend  to  the  fourteenth  day  but  gene- 
rally it  lasts  from  four  to  eight  days.  The  first  indication 
of  disorder  is  a  rise  in  internal  temperature,  which  occurs 
twenty-four  to  twenty-eight  hours  before  any  other  ap- 
preciable symptoms;  then  the  animal  exhibits  evident 
signs  of  disorder,  extreme  dulness,  rapid  loss  of  strength, 
irregular  rumination  and  feeding,  and  diminished  supply  of 
milk,  also  generally  a  certain  amount  of  constipation  is  pre- 
sent, the  coat  stares,  and  there  is  a  persistent  shivering. 
Later  the  visible  mucous  membranes  assume  a  pink  and 
then  a  dark  purple  colour,  most  perceptible  at  the  vulva. 
Twitchings  of  the  voluntary  muscles  take  place,  and  there 
is  a  husky  cough,  which  Professor  Simonds  describes  as 
"  like  that  of  a  broken-winded  horse  with  sore  throat.^^ 
The  ;pulse  at  first  is  scarcely  affected,  later  it  becomes 
frequent  and  full,  and  afterwards  loses  tone,  becomes 
feeble,  thready,  and  double,  and  towards  the  last  is  im- 
perceptible, and  the  beats  of  the  heart  are  irregular  and 
feeble.  The  breathing,  at  first  not  materially  altered, 
afterwards  is  frequent,  complicated  by  the  muscular 
twitchings,  so  that  it  presents  a  double  expiratory  move- 
ment, and  at  each  expulsion  of  the  air  the  animal  moans. 
The  breath  is  fetid.  The  temperature  of  the  surface  is 
variable,  but  the  diffusion  of  heat  throughout  the  system 
is  very  irregular,  and  as  the  debility  of  the  patient  and 
the  weakness  of  the  heart's  action  increases,  extreme  cold- 
ness of  those  parts  distant  from  the  centre  of  circulation 
sets  in.  The  nervous  system  is  in  a  very  disordered 
state ;  sometimes  the  animal  is  delirious  in  the  early 
stage,  while  in  the  later  there  is  extreme  debility,  so 
that  the  recumbent  position  is  persistently  maintained. 
Abdominal  pains  are  present,  marked  by  the  usual  signs, 
and    diarrhoea    early   supervenes,   the    evacuations    being 


DISEASES    OP    THE    BLOOD.  149 

watery,  oi  a  dirty  yellow  colour,  highly  offensive  with  a 
peculiar  odour,  containing  flocculi  of  lymph,  and  some- 
times a  little  blood,  and  being  expelled  suddenly  and  with 
great  force  at  first,  but  later  trickling  away  involuntarily. 
The  back  is  arched,  the  skin  dry  and  tense,  the  loins  are 
tender,  and  emphysematous  swellings  occur,  especially 
about  the  back  in  the  region  of  the  loins.  A  similar  dis- 
engagement of  gas  takes  place  into  the  interlobular  areolar 
tissue  of  the  lungs.  Non-emphysematous  tumours  are 
described  as  sometimes  appearing  about  various  parts 
of  the  body.  In  some  cases  the  secretion  of  milk  is  sud- 
denly and  completely  arrested,  but  in  others  this  fluid  con- 
tinues to  be  produced  in  small  quantity,  until  an  advanced 
stage  of  the  disorder,  its  "  specific  gravity  being 
diminished,  its  salines  less  plentiful,  its  fat  increased,  and 
sometimes  it  is  reddish  and  acrid."  The  urine  is  scanty, 
often  albuminous,  and  contains  a  diminished  amount  of 
salines,  but  an  increase  of  urea.  The  blood  is  dark  and 
coagulates  imperfectly,  has  an  excess  of  fibrin,  and  an 
altered  condition  of  its  albumen.  The  conjunctiva,  at  first 
reddened,  produces  acrid  watery  tears,  which  trickle  down 
the  face  and  cause  removal  of  the  cuticle ;  later  the  secre- 
tion becomes  gelatinous,  accumulates  at  the  inner  canthus, 
and  the  membrane  becomes  pale,  saliva  is  produced  in 
considerable  quantity,  and  the  mucous  membranes  undergo 
special  and  definite  changes;  the  congestion  above  in- 
dicated is  succeeded  by  proliferation  of  the  epithelium, 
with  an  altered  condition  of  the  products.  The  buccal 
mucous  membrane  about  the  lips,  gums,  and  palate,  pre- 
sents elevations  of  some  extent,  which  are  considered  to 
be  liable  to  be  confounded  with  those  lesions  which  occur 
in  foot-and-mouth  disease.  They  are  not  due  to  separa- 
tion of  the  epithelium  from  the  corium,  but  to  alterations 
of  the  former.  The  yellowish  masses  of  thickened  epi- 
thelium are  but  slightly  adherent  to  the  corium,  and  they 
can  be  readily  removed  as  branny  scales,  leaving  patches 
of  highly  vascular  sensitive  tissue,  surrounded  by  the 
white  mucous  membrane,  as  yet  unaltered.  These  lesions 
are  first  marked  in  the  conical  papillsB  of  the  cheek  and 


150  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

tlie  tongue.  The  altered  epithelium,  when  thrown  off  or 
removed,  passes  out  of  the  system  with  the  profuse  dis- 
charge of  saliva.  After  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
vulva  becomes  of  a  very  dark  purple  colour,  the  epithelium 
undergoes  changes  similar  to  that  of  the  mouth,  and  there 
is  an  albuminous  discharge,  which  hangs  from  the  lower 
commissure.  The  Schneiderian  membrane,  after  exhibiting 
the  early  congested  condition,  becomes  pale,  petechiated, 
and  its  blood-vessels  are  very  evident ;  then  its  epithelium 
becomes  altered.  There  is  a  discharge  which  hangs  about 
the  nostrils  and  dries  there.  The  skin  is  involved  in 
diseased  action ;  the  parts  covering  the  udder,  teats, 
inside  of  the  thighs,  and  those  neighbouring  the  mucous 
membranes  are  especially  affected,  though  we  often  see 
the  general  surface  implicated.  In  the  male  the  praeputial 
membrane  and  the  scrotum  are  very  liable  to  become 
affected.  The  lesion  may  range  from  a  scurfy  condition, 
through  a  papular  stage  to  the  pustular,  exudations  taking 
place  which  mat  the  hairs  together,  or  the  pustules  become 
confluent,  and  form  brown  patches  of  a  considerable  size. 

Prognosis. — Williams  says  :  —  ''  Some  cases  of  cattle 
plague  recover,  and  in  these  cases  it  is  observed  that 
the  skin  over  the  neck,  withers,  &c.,  becomes  covered 
with  a  yellowish  sebaceous  secretion,  but  there  are  no 
vesicles  or  pustules.'^  It  is  found  that  recovery  from  one 
attack  secures  future  immunity.  It  must  be  remembered, 
however,  that  an  animal  himself  exempt  may  convey  the 
contagium.  The  complications  of  this  disorder,  altera- 
tions of  the  intestinal  mucous  membrane,  persistent  diar- 
rhoea, and  excessive  debility,  are  such  as  prevent  frequent 
recovery  ;  but  in  its  enzootic  abode  many  mild  cases  are 
seen.  No  known  race  of  cattle  is  exempt,  but  it  is  said 
that  animals  native  to  the  districts  whence  it  comes  can 
resist  its  influence  much  more  frequently  than  others. 
Some  few  animals  enjoy  immunity  during  an  attack  even 
in  Western  Europe. 

Causes. — The  climatic  and  hygienic  conditions  of 
animals  in  the  enzootic  abode  of  this  disorder  are  pecu- 
liarly trying  to    the    constitution.       Drought,   starvation 


DISEASES    OF    THE    BLOOd!  151 

and  plenty,  extreme  cold  and  almost  tropical  heat,  being 
peculiarly  combined  on  the  wide  grassy  expanses  of  the 
steppes.  Thus,  the  animals  there  become  much  predis- 
posed to  this  as  well  as  other  disorders,  but  we  must 
coincide  with  the  opinion  at  which  Professor  Unterberger 
has  arrived,  that  eveu  here  the  disease  does  not  originate 
spontaneously.  From  this  enzootic  centre  the  disease  is 
carried  along  the  great  traffic  roads  towards  Western 
Europe,  and  follows  the  course  of  armies  in  the  field. 
Thus,  as  trade  facilities  increase  the  disorder  will  be 
liable  to  spread  to  a  greater  distance  in  a  shorter  time  ;  also 
.certain  definite  rinderpest  routes  from  Central  Russia  might 
be  noted ;  also  times  of  war  prove  times  of  pestilence,  a 
fact  which  has  long  been  observed.  Meat  food  for  troops 
in  Central,  Eastern,  and  Western  Europe  must  be  drawn 
from  the  large  supplies  of  Eastern  Russia,  and  in  the 
hurry  of  the  transport  and  the  commissariat  duties  vete- 
rinary inspection  is  too  often  neglected. 

Nothing  is  really  known  about  cattle  plague  contagium. 
It  is  said  to  diffuse  through  the  air  to  the  distance 
of  500  yards  (Gerlach,  40  metres;  Hayne,  30  to  1000 
metres),  bringing  about  infection  of  other  stock,  but 
most  observers  are  inclined  to  consider  the  latter  esti- 
mate must  be  taken  to  apply  to  mediate  contagion 
rather  than  true  infection.  The  discharges  may  retain 
their  power  of  communicating  the  disorder  for  eleven 
months  (Jessen),  three  months  (Camper  and  Viedazyr), 
six  years  (Weiss  and  Hering).  In  the  latter  cases  it  was 
retained  in  capillary  tubes,  or  between  two  pieces  of  glass, 
and  hence  not  exposed  to  the  air.  So  we  can  bring  to 
bear  weighty  arguments  against  the  theory  of  spontaneous 
origin  of  this  disorder ;  any  statement  that  it  may  occur 
as  a  result  of  ordinary  causes  must  not  be  admitted. 
Practically,  all  efforts  must  be  directed  against  the  con- 
tagium which  already  exists.  This  may  be  conveyed  by 
an  unaffected  animal,  by  hides  of  affected  ones,  by  at- 
tendants, &c;  and  the  persistence  of  the  virus  renders 
disinfection,  and,  where  possible,  destruction  of  things 
which  have   been    in    contact   with  any   diseased   animal 


152  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

imperative.  Burning  tar  in  byres  and  sheds  used  to  be 
recommended  as  a  means  of  disinfection,  but  now  we 
prefer  the  use  of  the  numerous  agents  of  tried  value, 
which  are  mentioned  in  our  Pharmacopoeias — carbolic 
acid,  sulphurous  acid,  chloride  of  zinc,  &c.  Special 
attendants  must  be  told  off  to  infected  animals;  these 
must  be  strictly  prevented  from  approaching  any  healthy 
cattle,  and  ought  to  be  disinfected  daily.  All  carcases  of 
diseased  animals  should  be  burnt  in  their  hides,  together 
with  the  straw  upon  which  they  have  been  lying.  The 
virus  may  remain  in  a  latent  condition  after  the  animals 
have  been  buried,  and  render  the  soil  a  medium  of  con- 
tagion (except  when  they  have  been  buried  in  quicklime). 
The  sheds  should  be  sluiced  down  with  strong  disinfecting 
solution,  so  that  no  excreta  bearing  virus  in  a  harmful 
condition  may  pass  into  the  sewers.  The  patients  should 
for  the  most  part,  and,  as  a  rule,  be  slaughtered  at  once, 
and  their  hides  slashed.  If  some  of  the  milder  cases  are 
kept  for  observation  or  treatment,  an  endeavour  must  be 
made  to  support  the  strength  of  the  patients  by  stimulants, 
combined  with  vegetable  tonics,  as  beer  or  gentian,  with 
nitrous  ether.  Numberless  recipes  have  been  submitted, 
tested,  and  proved  worthless.  We  can  name  no  agent 
capable  of  acting  as  an  antidote  to  rinderpest  poison. 
The  strength  requires  to  be  supported  by  every  available 
means,  especially  the  administration  of  gruel  and  other 
easily  digestible  but  nutritive  matters.  Internal  disin- 
fection has  been  much  recommended,  and  in  this  direction 
future  endeavours  to  treat  specific  diseases  must  be  made. 
But  inspection,  stoppage  of  cattle  traffic  from  diseased 
countries,  stamping  out  any  outbreaks  which  occur,  and 
quarantine  of  all  suspected  animals  must  be  adopted. 

Inoculation  has  been  tried  as  a  prophylactic,  but  it 
reproduces  the  disease  in  all  its  fatality  and  communi- 
cability.  Vaccination,  too,  was  unsuccessfully  resorted  to 
during  the  1865-66  outbreak,  under  the  supposition  that 
rinderpest  is  a  form  of  smallpox.  Neither  of  these  mea- 
sures, therefore,  is  advantageous. 

Fost-mortem   examination. — Considerable    variations  of 


DISEASES    OP    THE    BLOOD.  153 

internal  temperature  or  a  rapid  fall  of  the  mercury  are  signs 
of  approaching  death.  The  local  lesions  observable  in  the 
mucous  membrane  are  principally  due  to  plugging  of  even 
large  vessels  by  lymph  deposits,  whereby  the  nutrient  supply 
of  the  epithelium  is  cut  off,  and  it  undergoes  fatty  change. 
This  reminds  us  of  the  plugging  of  the  minute  vessels  which 
occurs  from  accumulation  of  bacteria  in  anthrax,  septicaemia, 
and  other  diseases  of  their  class.  The  specific  organisms 
of  rinderpest  have  not  yet  been  recognised.  During  the 
great  outbreak  in  this  country  medical  observers  noted  the 
presence  of  ovoid  bodies  in  the  muscles  between  the 
sarcous  fibres,  and  termed  them  "  cattle-plague  bodies,'' 
more  careful  examination  showed  that  they  are  harmless 
parasites  of  the  division  Gregarinae.  The  mouth,  pharynx, 
and  first  three  compartments  of  the  stomach  are  generally 
congested,  the  oesophagus  having  undergone  no  change  in 
the  majority  of  cases.  The  glandular  structures  of  the  velum 
palati,  tonsils,  and  of  the  base  of  the  tongue  are  diseased, 
their  ducts  being  plugged  up  with  strings  of  lymph.  The 
rumen  sometimes  shows  somewhat  extensive  patches  of  con- 
gestion of  a  "port- wine''  colour,  or  of  epithelial  proliferation. 
The  omasum  almost  invariably  has  its  contents  in  a  very 
hard  condition,  its  epithelium  separates  somewhat  readily, 
showing  a  congested  surface,  and  sometimes  the  leaves  are 
the  seat  of  more  severe  lesions,  and  may  be  ulcerated, 
as  a  result  of  sloughing,  to  such  an  extent  that  they 
are  perforated.  The  abomasum  is  congested,  and,  espe- 
cially near  the  pylorus,  shows  extensive  blood  extravasa- 
tions and  sloughing  after  the  formation  of  the  character- 
istic false  membranes.  The  contents  are  reddish-brown 
viscid  mucus,  intermingled  with  blood.  Sometimes  it  is 
noted  that  both  in  the  abomasum  and  the  intestine  a 
certain  amount  of  pigmentary  degeneration  occurs.  The 
small  intestines  are  rendered  dark  in  appearance  by  the 
altered  characters  of  the  mucous  membrane.  This  is 
congested  in  a  streaked  or  patchy  manner,  which  is  rather 
distinctive  of  this  disorder.  Extravasations  of  blood  are 
present,  and  the  contents  are  something  like  those  of  the 
abomasum.      Where  the  epithelium  has  separated  from  the 


154  BOVINE    PATHOLOar. 

corlum  the  latter  is  covered  by  a  lymphy  deposit,  which 
hides  the  bright  red  colour  of  the  erosions.  Peyer's 
patches  are  generally  diminished  in  size,  and  are  covered 
with  a  layer  of  lymph.  Sometimes,  however,  they  are 
enlarged  (as  also  are  the  solitary  glands),  and  are 
covered  with  false  membranes  of  variable  colour.  The 
large  intestines  may  be  more  or  less  diseased  than 
the  small.  The  ileo-caecal  valve  is  very  frequently  the 
seat  of  change ;  in  other  parts  the  bowel  exhibits  conges- 
tions, extravasations,  and  false  membranes,  the  latter 
often  being  in  process  of  removal  by  sloughing.  The 
rectum  especially  is  intensely  diseased.  The  lining  mem- 
brane of  the  gall-bladder  is  similarly  altered  to  that  of  the 
intestines,  and  the  gall-ducts  contain  lymph.  Wherever 
these  congestions  occur  the  capillary  vessels  become  very 
much  distended  with  micrococci  (according  to  Klebs). 
Also  some  of  these  invade  the  submucous-tissue,  of  which 
they  cause  thickening,  and  others  pass  off  in  the  discharges. 
The  respiratory  mucous  membrane  in  the  trachea,  bronchi, 
and  larynx  is  congested,  and  the  latter  exhibits  ulceration 
and  oedema  against  the  arytenoid  cartilage.  In  very  bad 
cases  along  the  whole  length  of  the  air-passages  the  mucous 
membrane  will  often  show  ecchymoses  and  false  mem- 
branes. There  is  an  emphysematous  condition  of  the  lungs. 
The  kidneys  are  enlarged,  and  their  lining  membrane,  as 
well  as  those  of  the  uterus,  urethra,  and  bladder,  are 
characteristically  altered.  The  urine  is  scanty  and  bloody. 
The  conditions  of  the  blood,  skin,  &c.,  have  been  already 
noticed.  No  marked  lesions  of  the  nervous  system  are 
present.  The  mammary  gland  is  congested.  The  flesh 
varies  but  little  from  the  healthy  in  physical  properties. 
Sometimes  it  has  a  bluish  colour  or  is  of  a  darker 
red  than  usual.  The  heart  is  soft,  and  there  are 
often  extensive  extravasations  beneath  its  lining  mem- 
brane. Petechias  and  ecchymoses  are  observable  on  most 
of  the  serous  membranes.  The  little  milk  produced  by 
affected  animals  should  be  thrown  away,  but,  according  to 
the  best  authorities,  we  have  no  evidence  that  the  flesh  of 
animals  in  the  early  stage  of  the  disease  willprove  prejudicial 


DISEASES    OP    THE   BLOOD.  155 

to  man.  Such  flesh  should  be  thoroughly  cooked,  and  it  may 
convey  the  disease  to  other  cattle.  It  was  concluded  at  the 
International  Veterinary  Congress  at  Vienna,  after  evidence 
from  Professors  Kawitsch  and  Jessen,  that  hard  dried  hides 
will  not  communicate  the  disease.  It  is  interesting  to 
inquire  into  the  question  whether  rinderpest  has  intimate 
affinities  with  any  disease  of  man.  This  matter  is  fully 
discussed  in  Professor  Gamgee's  valuable  and  exhaustive 
work  on  the  Cattle  Plague.  It  was  thought  to  be 
equivalent  to  typhoid  fever  of  man,  but  the  patches  of 
Peyer  do  not  undergo  the  changes  characteristic  of  that 
disease.  Again,  smallpox  has  been  considered  the  patho- 
logical equivalent,  especially  by  Dr.  Murchison,  who  very 
ably  supports  his  view,  but  skin  lesions  of  the  true  pustular 
character  are  seldom  present  in  rinderpest.  Also  it  is 
difficult  to  understand  how,  if  the  diseases  are  one  and  the 
same,  smallpox  is  always  present  in  this  country  and 
rinderpest  only  when  introduced  from  without.  The  false 
membranes  formed  in  cattle  plague  are  described  fre- 
quently as  diphtheritic  and  croupous  ;  the  disease  is  often 
termed  typhus,  and  some  superficial  resemblances  to 
certain  other  human  disorders  may  be  noted.  Suffice  it  to 
say,  with  regard  to  these,  that  it  has  not  been  found  that 
rinderpest  is  the  equivalent  of  either  of  them.  We  can 
only  consider  it  as  a  disease  of  a  peculiar  character  due  to 
a  special  pathogenic  organism — which^  probably,  Klebs  is 
right  in  considering  a  bacterium. 

Cattle  plague  and  eczema  epizootica  are  exanthemata, 
eruptive  disorders.  In  addition  we  find  that  variola  and 
a  special  form  of  aphtha  are  mentioned  under  this  heading 
in  bovine  pathology.  Recently  stomatitis  pustulosa  has 
been  added  to  the  list.  These  are  specific  disorders, 
generally  communicable  with  facility  by  contagion  and 
inoculation.  They  run  their  course  with  remarkable 
regularity,  exhibiting  a  number  of  consecutive  changes  of 
a  special  character,  culminating  in  the  formation  of  vesicles 
by  accumulation  of  serous  fluid  between  the  corium 
and  epithelium  of  skin,  or  mucous  membrane,  or  both. 
The  fluid  of  the  vesicle  contains  the  materies  morbi  in  a 


156  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

concentrated  state,  and  is  therefore  very  useful  for  inocu- 
lation purposes.  The  virus  is  thus  thrown  off  from  the 
system,  so  that  generally  these  diseases  have  a  benign 
character  but  under  defective  sanitary  arrangements,  and  in 
animals  with  vitiated  constitutions,  they  may  become 
malignant,  and  highly  destructive.  In  all  of  these  dis- 
orders we  see  a  well-marked  incubative  stage,  a  period  of 
invasion,  an  eruptive  stage,  and,  lastly,  the  stage  of 
repair.  It  is  noticed  that  certain  specific  poisons  are 
eliminated  by  certain  membranes,  and  in  special  ways. 
We  cannot  explain  this  any  more  than  why  particular 
medicinal  agents  act  on  special  organs.  The  nature  of 
the  contagium  is  still  obscure;  by  some  it  is  considered 
to  be  corpuscular,  by  others  bacterian.  These  diseases 
are  little  influenced  by  medicinal  treatment,  but  may  be 
altered  very  much  for  the  worse  by  neglect  of  sanitary 
precautions.  Then  we  see  considerable  and  permanent  dis- 
organisation of  structure,  complications  tending  to  render 
the  animal  useless,  even  if  it  recover.  The  eruption 
must  be  encouraged  in  every  possible  way,  and  its  various 
changes  promoted.  The  animaPs  strength  must  be  sup- 
ported. Measures  of  isolation  and  disinfection  are 
essential.  These  diseases,  especially  vaccinia,  derive  great 
interest  and  importance  in  their  relations  to  diseases  of 
other  animals. 

Vaccinia,  Cow-pox,  Yariola  Yaccinia  [with  which  are 
noticed  Varicella^  vel  Vaccinoides,  and  Smallpox  in  cattle], 
Yariolas  constitute  a  class  of  diseases,  one  form  being 
peculiar  to  each  species  of  animal ;  thus,  the  eruptions  of 
this  nature  which  occur  in  our  domesticated  animals  and 
in  man  are  not  identical,  but  only  allied.  Equine  and 
bovine  variolae  are  sometimes  considered  exceptions  to  this 
rule.  Jenner  observed  that  milkmaids  took  this  disorder 
from  milking  cows  affected  with  it,  and  were  thereby 
exempt  from  smallpox,  so  he  originated  the  system  of  vacci- 
nation to  the  great  and  lasting  benefit  of  mankind.  The 
same  observer  also  assented  to  an  observation  of  a  con- 
temporary of  his  (Dr.  Loy),  that  the  disease  vulgarly 
known  as   "  grease  '^  in  the   horse,    also   termed  eczema 


DISEASES    OP   THE    BLOOD.  157 

impetiginodes,  is  really  equine  variola^  and  its  virus  intro- 
duced into  tlie  system  of  the  ox  originates  variola  vaccinia. 
These  diseases  of  the  two  species  of  animal  were,  therefore, 
by  him  considered  identical.  This  communication  of  virus 
may  be  direct  or  indirectly  through  attendants.  Human 
variolous  matter,  when  introduced  into  the  system  of  the  cow 
is  stated  to  cause  a  smalljpGx  eruption,  while  vaccine  intro- 
duced into  the  human  system  does  not  produce  smallpox,  only 
vaccinia.  From  the  eruptions  in  the  latter  case  may  be  col- 
lected lymph,  which,  when  preserved  in  capillary  tubes  or 
on  ivory  points,  is  available  for  other  vaccinations.  It 
always  produces  the  milder  disease,  and  always  proves 
effective  against  smallpox  if  the  lymph  be  good  and  the 
inoculation  successful.  Thus,  much  lymph  derived  by 
linear  descent  from  that  which  originally  came  from  the 
cow  is  in  circulation.  Two  important  questions  arise  in 
connection  with  it : — 

1.  Has  it  degenerated  by  successive  passages  through 
the  systems  of  numerous  human  beings,  so  as  to  prove 
less  effectual  in  securing  immunity  now  than  formerly, 
and,  if  so,  will  it  not  be  better  to  renew  the  stock  ? 
Certainly,  lymph  just  taken  from  the  cow  produces  more 
marked  effects  than  humanised  lymph,  but  this  is  not  always 
a  benefit.  The  lymph  of  the  present  day  ordinarily  acts 
with  quite  sufficient  potency  and  seems  to  be  very  effectual. 

2.  Has  it  become  admixed  with  human  specific  poisons — 
scrofula,  syphilis,  and  the  like,  which  would  not  be 
present  in  animal  lymph.  There  is  much  feasability  in 
this  argument  in  favour  of  animal  vaccination.  Un- 
doubtedly there  is  much  vitiated  lymph  in  circulation. 
Some  lymph  '^  stocks ''  are  very  pure,  in  consequence  of 
great  care  in  selection  of  lymph  for  preservation.  The 
production  of  fresh  supplies  of  lymph  from  the  cow  is, 
therefore,  by  all  means  to  be  encouraged,  but  good  old 
lymph  is  not  to  be  rejected,  as  it  is  decidedly  better  for 
weakly  subjects.  Vaccination  and  other  inoculations  are 
performed  by  removal  of  the  epidermis,  and  insertion  of 
the  virulent  fluid  on  the  exposed  surface  of  the  cutis. 
Blood  should  not  be  drawn,  for  this  would  tend  to   wash 


158  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

away  the  virus;  also  the  seat  of  inoculation  may  be 
advantageously  protected  by  adhesive  plaster.  Chauveau 
has  made  some  most  interesting  researches  on  vaccine. 
It  is  said  that  the  disease  may  be  communicated  through 
the  digestive  organs,  or  by  intravenous  injection. 

Yariola  ovina  is  not  the  same  disease  as  variola  vac- 
cinia, Zundel  relates  how  two  beasts  became  affected 
by  living  with  sheep  suffering  from  their  pox.  Professor 
Simonds'  conclusions  with  regard  to  vaccination  for 
sheep-pox  are  indefinite.  He  quotes  Sacco  : — "  In  the 
event  of  an  outbreak  of  sheep-pox,  if  we  cannot  procure 
lymph  to  vaccinate  the  animals,  we  may  ovinate  the 
human  subject  or  the  cow,  and  thus  destroy  the  virulence  of 
the  virus,^'  and  ^^  the  vaccination  of  sheep  gives  immunity,'^ 
also  Mayer,  whose  researches  {'  Veterinarian,^  xx,  p.  629) 
showed  him  that  the  French  experiments  lead  to  the 
conclusion  that  vaccination  does  not  secure  immunity  from 
sheep -pox. 

An  attack  of  vaccinia  secures  immunity  from  the  disease 
in  future.  Outbreaks,  which  are  apparently  spontaneous, 
occur  among  cows,  especially  when  confined  to  close  sheds, 
and  shortly  after  calving.  The  disease  does  not  seem  to 
originate  spontaneously  in  the  bull,  but  it  occurs  as  a  result 
of  inoculation.  We  must  look  with  suspicion  on  the  asserted 
spontaneity  of  this  disease,  remembering  that  horses,  as 
well  as  other  cattle,  may  be  the  source  of  an  outbreak,  and 
also  some  attacks  in  the  cow  are  very  slight,  and  there 
are  several  conditions  with  which  they  may  be  confounded 
if  due  care  be  not  exercised.  Thus,  eczema  epizootica 
and  cattle  plague  often  present  an  eruption  on  the  teats 
and  udder,  and  there  are  several  forms  of  disease  which 
run  through  a  herd,  and  are  communicable  to  many, 
being  known  under  the  common  name  Yaeicella,  or 
Vaccinoides,  of  which  Fleming  mentions  three — the 
acuminated,  the  papular  or  warty,  and  the  emphyse- 
matous forms.  All  these  may  be  distinguished  from 
the  eruption  of  the  true  vaccinia,  which  never  assumes 
either  the  acuminated  or  emphysematous  character,  and 
only  passes  through  a  papular   stage,   which   lasts  about 


DISEASES    OP    THE    BLOOD.  159 

four  days.  Vaccinia  is  not  a  severe  affection ;  it  renders 
the  milk  unfit  for  food,  and  diminishes  the  supply  jpro 
tem.y  though  febrile  conditions  seldom  run  very  high,  and 
present  nothing  very  special  in  their  characters.  The 
first  manifestation  of  local  lesion  is  redness,  at  first  dif- 
fused, subsequently  circumscribed,  in  patches  over  the 
mammary  gland  and  teats,  also  pain  and  general  swelling. 
When  the  parts  are  reddened,  small  hard  nodules  appear 
and  increase  in  size  until  they  attain  about  the  size  of  a 
sixpence.  This  is  the  papular  stage  ;  next  comes  the  vesi- 
cular. A  serous  accumulation  extends  from  the  centre,  ren- 
dering the  vesicae  bluish,  though  they  are  still  surrounded 
by  a  congested  ring  (areola).  The  central  point,  however, 
does  not  project,  but  remains  somewhat  slightly  bound  to 
the  corium.  Consequently  the  vesica  has  an  umbilicated 
appearance.  About  the  eighth  or  tenth  day  these  vesicas 
attain  their  maximum  development.  Then  comes  the 
pustular  stage,  which  lasts  for  two  or  three  days,  and  then 
the  contents  of  the  pustule,  if  not  set  free  by  rupture, 
become  absorbed,  and  a  peculiar  brown  scab  remains 
(siccative  stage)  for  a  varying  length  of  time.  Vaccine 
lymph  should  be  collected  only  from  the  matured  vesicw, 
and  should  contain  neither  pus  nor  blood,  neither  should 
it  give  the  slightest  evidence  of  putridity  or  milkiness. 
An  attack  of  cow-pox  generally  extends  over  several 
weeks ;  the  disease  prevails  especially  in  the  spring,  and 
in  certain  parts  of  the  country.  It  seems  to  be  less 
frequent  now  than  formerly.  In  warm  countries  it  be- 
comes malignant ;  thus,  in  India  it  is  manifested  by  high 
fever,  confluence  of  the  vesicae,  and  the  mucous  mem- 
branes in  general  becoming  involved  in  the  diseased  action. 
Thus,  there  is  a  discharge  from  the  nostrils,  profuse  saliva- 
tion, diarrhoea,  and  abdominal  pains.  Young  animals  and 
weakly  subjects  even  succumb  to  the  disorder. 

Treatment. — Prevent  retention  of  milk,  such  as  is  apt 
to  occur  by  scabbing  over  of  the  extremity  of  the  teat. 
Draw  off  the  milk  regularly  with  the  syphon.  Occasionally 
mammitis  results  from  extension  of  inflammation  along  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the   gland.      This  will  require  the 


160  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

ordinary  antiphlogistic  means.  Avoid  communicating  the 
disease  from  sick  to  healthy  animals  when  milking ;  iso- 
lation is  seldom  necessary.      Eeject  the  milk. 

Sometimes  customers  bring  dogs  to  the  veterinary 
surgeon  that  they  may  be  vaccinated  as  a  preventive 
against  distemper.  We  have  no  proof  that  this  is  of  the 
slightest  value  ;  on  the  contrary,  evidence  is  not  wanting 
to  prove  the  fallacy  of  this  method. 

Infectious  Aphtha  is  described  by  some  authors 
as  affecting  cattle.  Eczema  epizootica  is  frequently 
called  aphthous  fever,  and  a  form  of  aphtha,  of  an 
enzootic  character,  is  sometimes  seen  as  a  result  of  special 
characters  of  food  supplied  to  a  number  of  animals. 
Probably  the  true  ''  infectious  '^  form  is  the  acuminated 
varicella  mentioned  above,  the  mouth  being  involved.  The 
vesicae  are  numerous,  conical  in  shape,  and  occur  in  all 
parts  of  the  mouth ;  thus,  the  disease  may  be  distinguished 
from  eczema  epizootica.  This  aphtha  is  said  to  be  most 
frequently  met  with,  in  India  and  other  warm  countries  ; 
we  are  inclined  to  think  that  in  the  majority  of  cases  it  is 
simply  foot-and-mouth  disease.  Our  knowledge  of  the 
cattle  diseases  of  India  is  scanty  and  indefinite.  Doubt- 
less, when  scientific  investigations  of  them  have  been 
made,  we  shall  find  our  list  of  exanthemata  enlarged. 

Stomatitis  Pustulosa  Equi,  described  by  Professors 
Eggeling  and  Ellenberger  (see  '  Veterinary  Journal,^  vii, 
306),  is  communicable  to  cattle  by  inoculation  and  from 
one  cow  to  another.  Nodules  first  formed  ;  these  became 
pustules,  which  burst  and  produced  superficial  ulcers; 
these  increased  in  size,  and  then  commenced  healing,  a 
scab  being  formed.  The  contagion  may  occur  from  the 
skin,  but  takes  place  most  readily  from  the  mucous  mem- 
brane. The  virus,  when  passed  through  several  animals, 
seems  to  lose  its  potency. 

Fleming,  in  his  '  Veterinary  Sanitary  Science  and 
Police,^  mentions  a  bovine  aphthous  disease  of  the  genital 
organs  as  observed  by  Numan,  of  Utrecht,  in  1831,  since 
when  it  has  several  times  appeared  in  Holland.  It  is 
anthracoid,  gives  rise  to  malignant  carbuncle  in  man,  and 


DISEASES    OF    THE    BLOOD.  161 

is  communicable  by  cohabitation  and  contagion.  Inflam- 
matory swelling  affects  the  vulva  and  vagina  in  the 
female,  the  anus  and  rectum  in  the  male,  and  phlyctense 
are  produced.  Fever  not  generally  detectable  is  accom- 
panied sometimes  by  general  inflammation  of  mucous  mem- 
branes and  bloody  evacuations  per  anum  and  vulvam,  the 
conjunctiva  being  so  injected  as  to  look  like  a  clot  of  blood. 
Autopsy  showed  infiltrations  into  the  subcutaneous  con- 
nective tissue,  and  the  fourth  compartment  of  the  stomach 
and  small  intestine  filled  with  bloody  fluid.  Treatment 
in  Numan^s  hands  proved  very  successful.  Isolation  and 
disinfection  are  important, 

Anthracoid  Affections,  Charbon.— A  number  of 
diseased  conditions  of  cattle,  apparently  distinct  from  each 
other,  may  be  associated  under  this  heading.  They  are  of 
the  highest  importance,  for  they  are  communicable ;  we 
know  their  contagium  ;  they  are  highly  fatal,  are  to  a 
certain  extent  preventable,  and  are  intimately  related  to 
the  health  and  wealth  of  mankind.  Ordinarily  enzootic 
or  even  only  sporadic,  under  favoring  circumstances  they 
become  epizootic  and  traverse  whole  continents,  causing 
fearful  loss  of  animal  wealth.  The  researches  of  Pasteur, 
Toussaint,  Feser,  and  other  continental  observers  have 
thrown  great  light  on  their  nature,  causes,  and  prevention. 
Anthrax  literally  means  a  boil;  the  name  was  derived 
from  the  manifestation  of  this  disorder  in  man  as 
malignant  carbuncle.  Charbon  is  a  term  derived  from 
the  black  condition  of  the  blood.  This  results  from  the 
presence  in  that  fluid  of  the  Bacillus  anthracis,  a  very 
large  bacterium,  a  full  account  of  the  life  history  of 
which  may  be  seen  in  our  paper  on  Bacteria  in  the  '  Veteri- 
nary JournaP  for  1879.  This  vegetable  organism  gains  entry 
into  the  blood,  and  there  multiplies  by  rapid  reproduction. 
It  is  imagined  that  it  wars  with  the  red  corpuscles  for  the 
possession  of  oxygen.  While  the  bacteria  are  few  no 
symptoms  of  disorder  are  detectible  in  very  many  cases, 
in  others  only  a  rise  of  the  internal  temperature.  Acute 
disorder  may  suddenly  set  in  and  run  its  course  in  a  few 
hours,  in  other  cases  the  attack  may   extend  over  days. 

11 


162  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY.  * 

It  has  been  proved  tliat  these  bacteria  are  the  producers 
of  anthrax,  and  they  generate  also  an  irritating  matter 
which  heightens  their  tendency  to  give  rise  to  inflamma- 
tory action.  The  beautiful  researches  of  Toussaint  seem  to 
prove  that  they  accumulate  in  enormous  numbers  in  the 
small  capillaries  of  the  lungs,  and,  by  blocking  them  up, 
cause  "  mechanical  asphyxia.''  Some  authorities  still  deny 
that  they  are  the  sole  producers  of  charbon,  and  consider 
this  disease  may  originate  spontaneously  and  the  organisms 
be  accidentally  present  in  the  blood.  They  also  state 
that  organisms  of  this  kind  may  be  present  without 
causing  disease,  but  we  note  : 

1.  That  these  bacilli  are  invariably  present  in  cases  of 
anthrax. 

2.  That  when  bacilli  of  this  kind  have  been  cultivated 
in  a  solution  of  known  chemical  composition  and  are 
injected  into  the  blood  they  generate  anthrax. 

3.  That  these  bacilli  in  the  condition  of  spores  have  a 
remarkable  vitality,  and  will  bear  any  extremes  of  tempera- 
ture and  dryness  to  which  they  may  be  subjected  in  nature. 

4.  That  since  all  animals  are  liable  to  charbon, 
undoubtedly  wild  ones  diffuse  the  bacteria  and  bring  them 
into  parts  of  the  country  where  they  have  been  hitherto 
unknown.      Flies  may  be  vehicles  of  contagium. 

5.  That  bacilli  capable  of  producing  disease  have  been 
found  in  the  soil  of  meadows  well  known  for  their  power 
of  generating  the  disorder,  and  especially  from  those  parts 
where  post-mortem  examinations  of  victims  of  this  malady 
have  been  made,  or  where  these  victims  have  been  buried. 

6.  That  these  bacilli  in  the  spore  condition  can  persist 
for  a  very  long  time,  and  subsequently  enter  into  the 
animal  system  and  generate  anthrax. 

7.  That  anthrax  is  most  frequent  in  marshy  places  and 
during  warm  weather,  heat  and  moisture  being  very 
favorable  to  growth  of  bacteria,  as  of  all  other  fungi. 

8.  That  when  anthrax  assumes  an  epizootic  form, 
climatic  conditions  are  extraordinarily  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  other  fungi. 

9.  That  harmless  bacteria  closely  resembling  those  forms 


DISEASES    OF    THE    BLOOD.  163 

found  in  the  blood  in  anthrax  have  been  observed;  it  is  these 
which  have  been  found  in  the  system  of  healthy  animals. 

10.  That  the  severity  of  the  symptoms  is  proportional 
to  the  ratio  of  the  number  of  parasites  present  to  the 
strength  of  the  animal. 

11.  Whereas  cases  of  supposed  spontaneous  anthrax 
used  to  be  considered  common,  we  can  now  prove  that 
they  are  rare.  Their  diminution  has  been  exactly  pro- 
portioned to  our  advances  in  knowledge  of  the  bacillus. 

12.  That  the  opinion  that  anthrax  originates  only  from 
the  bacillus  gaining  entry  into  the  animal  system,  is 
more  likely  to  lead  to  good  practical  results,  as  preventive 
measures  and  curative  means,  than  any  other  opinion 
which  has  been  advanced;  the  theory  of  spontaneous 
origin  of  disorders  of  this  kind  being  particularly  liable 
to  discourage  hygienic  prophylactic  measures. 

The  mode  of  entry  of  the  Anthrax  bacillus  into  the 
organism  has  been  the  object  of  recent  research.  MM. 
Pasteur  and  Toussaint  simultaneously  arrived  at  the  result 
that  in  almost  every  case  the  food  is  the  vehicle,  and 
wounds  are  the  points  of  entry.  Toussaint  proved  this  by 
careful  post-mortem  examinations,  in  which  he  found  the 
lymphatic  glands  in  connection  witb  the  mouth  and  pharynx 
in  the  large  majority  of  cases  earliest  involved.  Pasteur 
found  that  only  animals  with  injured  mouths  who  fed  on 
forage  watered  with  culture  fluid  containing  the  bacillus 
became  affected,  and  that  when  harsh  irritating  food  was 
given  almost  all  the  animals  experimented  upon  succumbed. 
A  low  percentage  of  cases  which  naturally  occur  in  a  pasture 
may  be  traced  to  entry  througb  wounds  on  the  limbs  and 
other  parts  of  the  body. 

Death  is  brought  about  either,  as  above  indicated,  by 
mechanical  asphyxia,  or  by  deoxidation  of  the  red  cor- 
puscles, or  by  decomposition  of  the  blood  before  death 
(necrsemia).  The  presence  of  the  organisms  in  the  blood 
gives  rise  to  high  febrile  disturbance  and  direct  stimu- 
lation of  various  tissues  as  denoted  by  erratic  nervous 
energy  and  muscular  twitchings,  thus  death  may  result  from 
exhaustion.     In  some  cases  (especially  of  young  and  weak 


164  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

patients)  death  occurs  very  early,  No  marked  lesions 
are  present,  except  that  the  lymphatic  glands  are  high 
coloured  and  the  lungs  are  congested.  It  seems  almost 
as  if  the  animal  had  collapsed  under  the  shock  of  invasion. 

Certain  definite  fost-mortem  appearances  may  be  observed 
in  all  cases  of  charbon.  Decomposition  sets  in  even  before 
death,  so  the  body  is  disfigured  by  gaseous  accumulations  in 
the  subcutaneous  areolar  tissue ;  also  the  abdomen  becomes 
enormously  distended.  Signs  of  mucous  or  watery  dis- 
charges mixed  with  blood  are  apparent  at  the  natural 
orifices,  and  red  spots  or  blotches  frequently  occur  on  the 
mucous  and  cutaneous  surfaces.  The  areolar  tissue  is  the 
seat  of  a  sero- sanguineous  fluid,  and  similar  material  is 
collected  in  somewhat  large  quantities  in  the  serous  sacs. 
The  endocardium  and  other  serous  membranes  present 
petechise,  ecchymoses,  and  blood  infiltrations.  The  blood 
is  black,  fluid,  and  iridescent  *  on  the  surface;  it  contains 
the  bacilli  (perceptible  with  y-inch  power),  and  stains  the 
walls  of  the  vessels.  The  heart  is  soft  and  relaxed.  The 
other  muscles  are  the  seat  of  serous  and  lymphy  deposit, 
more  or  less  marked,  and  frequently  present  red  blotches, 
probably  due  to  rupture  of  vessels  :  the  blocking  of 
minute  blood  passages  leads  to  over  distension,  then 
rupture,  whereby  ecchymoses  are  produced  :  the  hasmo- 
poietic  organs  are  considerably  altered.  The  spleen  is 
enlarged  and  gorged  with  the  dark  blood ;  the  liver  en- 
larged, and  with  its  blood-vessels  distended.  The  kidneys 
are  also  increased  in  size  and  congested. 

We  must  next  see  what  indications  for  treatment  pre- 
sent themselves.  These  diseases  occur  especially  on  low- 
lying  lands  periodically  flooded,  by  the  sides  of  rivers  and 
pools ;  on  clay-lands,  which  retain  moisture ;  also  on  chalk, 
but  seldom  on  granite.  In  spring  these  diseases  are  most 
frequent,  but  they  often  occur  in  the  summer  and  autumn. 
Special  winds  also  have  been  associated  with  their  pre- 
valence; the  south-west  is  most  remarkable  in  this 
respect.  Fogs  are  sometimes  concomitants  of  outbreaks 
of  anthrax,  but  whether  related  to  them  as  cause  it  is 
difficult  to  say ;    for  doubtless   the    spores    are    diifused 


DISEASES    OF    THE    BLOOD  165 

through  the  air  and  carried  about,  probably  aggregated 
into  spore  clouds.  Of  this  nature  may  be  some  "  blights," 
for  often  the  presence  of  fungus  mycelium  has  been  re- 
corded as  a  feature  of  anthracogenic  pastures.  Com- 
munication of  anthrax  by  true  infection  is  not  generally 
admitted  ;  certainly  mediate  and  immediate  contagion  best 
explain  the  phenomena  of  almost  every  outbreak.  It  is 
certain  that  once  the  bacilli  gain  entry  into  the  system 
they  will  be  little,  if  at  all,  influenced  in  their  progress  of 
invasion  by  medicinal  agents.  Chlorate  of  potash,  hypo- 
sulphite of  soda,  and  carbolic  acid  maybe  tried  in  various 
cases  in  the  endeavour  to  accomplish  internal  disinfection  ; 
as  yet  we  cannot  hold  out  prospects  of  success. 

Prophylactic  means  are  most  important.  M.  Chauveau 
has  shown  that  certain  breeds  of  sheep  have  immunity 
from  anthrax,  and  this  question  of  pathological  immunity 
of  special  races  promises  to  give  good  results  in  the  future. 
All  pastures  known  to  be  favorable  to  the  development  of 
anthrax  ought  to  be  kept  free  from  cattle  for  a  number 
of  years.  All  animals  dying  from  anthrax  should  be  re- 
moved from  the  pasture  before  post-mortem  examination. 
The  carcases  should  be  burned  in  the  hides,  or,  the  skins 
having  been  thoroughly  slashed  with  cross-cuts,  should  be 
buried  in  quicklime.  Ordinary  burial  is  not  sufficient,  for 
Feser's  researches  show  that  the  spores  of  the  bacilli  pass 
to  the  surface  of  the  superincumbent  ground  (some  say 
they  are  carried  thither  by  earth-worms) ;  thus,  each 
grave  becomes  a  fruitful  centre  of  contagion.  All  ejecta, 
blood,  &c.,  from  diseased  animals  should  be  collected  and 
mixed  with  quick  lime.  All  stables,  sheds,  &c.,  occupied 
by  cattle  affected  with  anthrax  should  be  thoroughly  dis- 
infected. Pigs,  dogs,  and  poultry  should  not  be  allowed 
to  feed  on  blood,  flesh,  and  ejecta  of  anthrax  victims. 
Attendants  should  be  warned  that  the  disease  is  com- 
municable to  man  by  inoculation,  and  every  care  should  be 
taken  in  making  post-mortem  examinations  of  these  cases. 
The  time-honoured  method  of  prevention  is  a  full  bleed- 
ing and  insertion  of  a  seton  in  the  dewlap.  The  former 
means   we  are   not   inclined  to  consider  of    the  slightest 


166  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

value  ;  tlie  latter  is  supported  by  very  many  accurate  ob- 
servers as  producing  alterations  of  the  blood  the  reverse 
of  tbose  observable  in  charbon.  It  relieves  plethora, 
which  lessens  the  resisting  power  of  the  constitution,  and 
so  also  proves  beneficial.  The  most  useful  preventive  means 
are  those  which  tend  to  promote  constitutional  vigour, 
administration  of  laxatives,  good  but  not  too  high  feeding, 
supply  of  jpure  water,  also  internal  administration  of 
common  salt.  Fresh  air  and  a  certain  amount  of  physical 
exertion  should  also  be  secured  for  the  patients.  The 
dark  colour  of  the  flesh,  blood  extravasations,  and  lymph 
exudations,  and  the  tendency  to  putrid  decomposition  will 
enable  us  to  detect  the  flesh  of  animals  which  have  died 
from  or  been  destroyed  for  anthrax.  Also,  sometimes, 
here  and  there  may  be  seen  a  congested  small  lymphatic 
gland.  This  flesh  ought  never  to  be  used  for  the  food  of 
any  animal ;  it  has  been  known  to  give  rise  to  malignant 
carbuncle  in  man,  and  even  after  cooking  retains  a  trace 
of  the  unpleasant  odour,  which  depends  on  a  principle  so 
noxious  as  to  give  rise  to  severe  headache,  nausea,  and 
giddiness  when  any  one  spends  much  time  in  an  elaborate 
investigation  of  an  anthrax  carcase.  The  milk  of  animals 
suffering  from  anthracoid  diseases  is  a  vehicle  of  contagion  ; 
its  properties  are  altered,  and  its  odour  and  colour  changed. 
Under  no  circumstances  should  it  be  used  as  food  for 
man  or  other  animals.  The  list  of  human  disorders  of  an 
anthracoid  nature  obtained  from  animals  is  increasing,  a 
happy  indication  that  they  will  in  future  be  prevented  by 
removing  their  causes.  Some  day,  doubtless,  we  shall  see 
human  and  veterinary  practitioners  co-operating  in  this 
matter  for  the  benefit  of  mankind.  Malignant  carbuncle 
and  woolsorters^  disease  are  the  most  fatal  of  these  dis- 
orders known  as  yet. 

On  the  prospects  of  inoculation  for  anthrax. — Some 
animals  can  withstand  anthrax.  The  high  temperature  of 
birds,  or  their  highly  oxygenated  blood,  defends  them  in 
the  majority  of  cases.  On  the  other  hand,  we  have  a 
well- authenticated  case  of  anthracoid  disease  of  fish.  When 
bacilli  are  introduced  into  the  subcutaneous  areola  tissue 


DISEASES    OP    THE    BLOOD.  167 

of  an  animal  which  will  not  become  affected,  an  abscess 
forms,  and  so  the  organisms  are  confined  and  then  thrown 
off.  M.  Pasteur  has  announced  that  by  a  special  method 
of  culture  he  has  so  modified  the  bacterium  of  fowl 
cholera  that  inoculation  with  the  altered  fungus  secures 
immunity  from  future  attacks  of  this  invariably  fatal  dis- 
order. When  confirmed,  the  learned  Frenchman  may  be 
able  to  apply  his  method  to  the  similar  disease,  anthrax.^ 

Splenic  Fevee,  Splenic  Apoplexy,  Essential  Charbon, 
is  one  of  the  most  frequent  forms  of  anthrax  in  cattle. 
It  is  remarkable  for  its  sudden  invasion,  its  extreme 
fatality  (99  per  cent.,  Simonds),  and  its  rapid  course.  It 
occurs  among  cattle  of  all  sorts,  especially  those  at  pasture, 
and  supplied  with  water  contaminated  with  excreta  and 
sewerage.  It  is  also  attributed  to  bad  or  too  nutritive 
food,  to  sudden  changes  of  diet,  and  other  ordinary 
influences ;  but  almost  every  outbreak  may  be  traced  to 
contagion,  either  direct  or  indirect.  This  used  to  be  and 
still  is  cited  as  an  example  of  a  disease  of  a  specific  charac- 
ter, originating  spontaneously ;  but  now  we  know  the 
apparent  commencement  of  the  attack  is  simply  when  the 
bacilli  begin  to  manifest  their  effects.  For  some  time 
they  must  have  been  multiplying  in  the  system.  Until 
lately,  then,  investigators  have  not  been  accustomed  to 
look  for  causes  in  the  past,  except  the  most  recent,  and 
until  actual  experiment  proved  conservation  of  the  spores 
in  all  their  power  of  development,  we  were  right  not  to 
attribute  cases  of  this  kind  to  others  which  preceded  them 
some  time.  Also  we  have  only  just  learned  the  various 
forms  which  anthrax  may  assume. 

Symptoms. — The  appearance  of  the  disorder  among  a 
number  of  cattle  is  denoted  frequently  by  death  of  some 
of  them  in  even  so  short  a  time  as  two  hours.  Thus, 
several  may  be  found  dead  when  the  shed  is  entered  in  the 
morning.  Others  are  affected,  but  withstand  the  disease 
longer,  though  death  generally  occurs  before  twenty-four 

'  Since  the  above  was  written,  Professor  Toussaint,  the  distinguished 
teacher  of  physiology  at  the  Toulouse  Veterinary  School,  has  announced  that 
anthrax  blood  from  which  the  bacilli  have  been  removed  by  filtration  is 
effectual  for  what  he  terms  "  Anthrax  Vaccination.'* 


168  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

hours  have  elapsed.  Febrile  and  general  symptoms  are 
present,  and  in  the  early  stages  the  patient  is  excited. 
The  internal  temperature  is  considerably  elevated.  Next 
signs  of  abdominal  pain  appear,  the  animal  is  very  uneasy, 
the  pulse  becomes  rapid,  small,  and  fluttering  ;  respirations 
accelerated,  and  somewhat  laboured.  There  is  pain  on 
pressure  of  the  loins,  stiffness,  and  staggering  gait ;  also  a 
discharge  of  mucus  and  saliva  from  the  mouth,  and  mus- 
cular twitchings  over  the  body.  Rapid  debility  sets  in ; 
there  is  a  discharge  of  bloody  faeces,  and  the  urine  also 
contains  blood.  The  pulse  is  lost,  and  paralysis  supervenes, 
so  that  the  animal  is  recumbent.  Williams  speaks  about 
cases  of  this  disorder  assuming  the  characters  of  remittent 
fever,  and  lasting  for  several  days.  Convulsions  occur  in 
the  later  stage,  and  the  animal  dies  generally  by  necreemia 
and  coma.  In  all  cases  death  is  ushered  in  by  rapid  and 
extreme  fall  of  the  internal  temperature. 

Treatment. — Curative  means  have  not  been  found  use- 
ful. We  could  hardly  expect  them  to  be  so  since  the 
animal  is  all  but  dying  when  we  are  sent  for.  Prophy- 
lactic measures  comprise  those  recommended  for  anthracoid 
cases  in  general.  Dogs  and  pigs  have  been  known  to  die 
from  consumption  of  the  evacuations. 

Post-mortem  examination  shows  the  spleen  enormously 
distended,  even  to  five  times  its  natural  size  and  weight, 
by  the  dark  blood,  which  gravitates  freely,  since  the  tissue 
of  the  organ  is  broken  down.  The  blood,  tissues  in  general, 
serous  mucous,  &c.,  present  the  characteristic  anthrax 
lesions,  which  are  especially  marked  in  the  bowels.  The 
contents  of  the  intestines  and  bladder  are  mixed  with  blood. 

Texas  Fever,  Spanish  Fever,  American  Splenic  Fever 
is  a  form  of  anthrax  endemic  in  the  region  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  whence  it  is  spread  through  the  cattle 
districts  of  the  United  States  by  contagious  influences.  It 
presents  several  peculiarities,  though  it  closely  resembles 
splenic  apoplexy.  It  differs  in  the  following  points,  which 
I  venture  to  collect  from  a  paper  by  Mr.  Myers  in  the 
'  American  Veterinary  Review/  Urine  reddish-black, 
sometimes  coffee  coloured,  turbid,  sometimes  with  a  foul 


DISEASES    OP    THE    BLOOD.  169 

odour.  After  standing  for  twenty-four  hours  gives  a  brick- 
coloured  precipitate.  Sometimes  this  urine  is  streaked 
with  blood.  Colicky  pains  seldom  present.  Mucous  mem- 
branes greyish.  Faecal  matter  soft  and  streaked  with  blood. 
Blood  more  arterial  than  venous  gives  a  reddish  yellow- 
tinged  serum. 

Autopsy.  —  Subcutaneous  blood-vessels  very  seldom 
engorged.  Muscles  pale,  epithelial  lining  of  intestines 
often  partially  detached,  and  of  a  greyish-green  hue 
and  gangrenous  odour,  the  denuded  muscular  coat  being 
congested.      Peyer^s  patches  large  and  livid. 

The  disease  generally  lasts  from  two  and  a  half  to  four 
days,  and  is  prevalent  during  the  hot  summer  months. 
Texan  cattle  convey  the  disease  without  necessarily  suffer- 
ing from  it.  Whether  animals  which  receive  the  disease 
can  transmit  it  to  others  has  been  questioned.  This  disease 
shows  that  sloughing  of  patches  of  the  intestinal  mucous 
membrane  (such  as  occur  in  swine  plague)  may  be  seen  in 
undoubted  anthrax  of  cattle. 

Gloss  Antheax — Malignant  Soee  Theoat;  Blain — 
*^  HaivTcs.''  Sometimes  the  fauces  become  the  special 
seat  of  anthrax  lesions,  the  tongue  being  enlarged  espe- 
cially at  the  base,  livid  in  colour,  and  the  seat  of  putrid 
decomposition.      The  mucous   membrane  covering  it  and 


Fig.  24.— Gloss  anthrax  or  blaln.     Early  stage.     (Armatage.) 

inside  the  lips  being  raised  in  the  form  of  blebs  or  phlyc- 
tenae,    which    may   be   especially  observed  at   the    lateral 


170  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

parts,  and  give  exit  to  a  foul  smelling,  yellowish,  or  dark 
red  fluid.  Large  sloughing  ulcers  remain  behind.  The 
surrounding  parts  are  congested  and  swollen  by  extension 
of  inflammation.  Saliva  mixed  with,  the  putrid  serous 
discharges  pours  profusely  from  the  mouth.  Respiration 
is  considerably  interfered  with,  fever  runs  high,  and 
debility  early  sets  in  and  increases  rapidly.  The  pulse 
very  soon  becomes  small,  double,  and  scarcely  perceptible. 
Sometimes  recovery  occurs,  vv^hen  there  is  considerable 
sloughing  of  the  tissues  of  the  tongue,  and  the  animal 
has  to  be  nursed  through,  a  long  period  of  convalescence. 
Generally  death  takes  place  early,  and  post-mortem 
examination  shows  general  anthrax  lesions  besides  the  local 
morbid  conditions. 

Treatment — Care  must  be  taken  lest  the  discharges 
from  tbemouthfall  on  an  abraded  surface.  Cases  of  this  kind 
ought  to  be  isolated.  Free  incisions  should  be  made  into 
the  gangrenous  organ,  and  antiseptic  applications  be  used 
locally.  The  strength  must  be  husbanded  in  every  possible 
manner,  especially  the  patient  must  receive  soft  nutrient 
food.  Where  the  swelling  of  the  throat  threatens  suffo- 
cation tracheotomy  must  be  performed. 

Oharbonous  gangrene  of  the  lungs  is  described  by  Pro- 
fessor Williams  as  a  secondary  anthracic  condition.  He 
mentions  it  as  appearing  like  a  relapse  on  about  the  tenth 
day,  the  breath  becoming  very  foetid,  the  respiratory 
movements  muck  accelerated,  and  the  animals  sinking 
rapidly,  the  lungs  after  death  being  gangrenous,  emphy- 
sematous, and  loaded  with  black,  tarry,  and  decomposing 
blood. 

Emphysema  Infectuosum,  Black  Quarter j  Blade  Leg, 
Garhuncular  Erysipelas  (Armatage),  Quarter  Euilj  Speed, 
Inflammatory  Fever,  8fc. — This  is  an  anthracoid  disease, 
but  is  probably  not  anthrax,  not  due  to  Bacillus  anthracis. 

It  used  to  be  considered  ^'  external  or  symptomatic 
charbon,'^  an  endeavour  of  nature  to  throw  off  anthrax 
poison  from  the  system,  and  was  by  some  thought  rather 
a  favorable  condition  ;  but  quite  recently  the  identity  of 
splenic  fever  and  black  quarter  has  been  successfully  called 


DISEASES    OP    THE     BLOOD.  171 

into  question  (see  ^'  Synopses  of  Continental  Veterinary 
Journals/^  ^  Veterinarian^'  February  and  Aprils  1880;  also 
Dr.  Greenfield's  Lecture  IV,  February  number  of  '  Vete- 
rinarian/ 1880)  by  MM.  Arloing,  Cornevin,  and  Vernaut. 
These  diseases  are  not  reproducible  one  from  the  other,  do 
not  occur  together  in  a  herd  subjected  to  deleterious  influ- 
ences, and  no  bacteria  have  been  generally  recognised  as 
occurring  in  the  blood  in  black  quarter,  nor  did  inoculations 
with  that  fluid  give  rise  to  any  attack  of  anthrax  or  of 
the  emphysematous  disease  (except  in  Dr.  Greenfield's 
case).  Cattle  of  all  ages  aro  liable  to  become  affected, 
but  this  disorder  generally  appears  in  young  stock  aged 
from  six  months  to  two  years,  which  have  been  changed 
from  poor  to  rich  pasture,  especially  low-lying  land.  Such 
animals  thrive  with  rapidity  until  they  attain  a  high  state 
of  plethora,  when  some  of  them,  perhaps,  become  lame. 
A  swelling  commences  in  some  part  of  the  body,  especially 
the  hock.  This  is  very  hot  and  painful ;  it  is  apt  to  be 
mistaken  for  an  injury.  It  rapidly  extends  up  the  limb, 
causing  very  considerable  tumefaction,  at  first  highly 
painful.  Later  insensibility  may  be  observed  in  the  parts, 
they  become  gangrenous,  cold,  and  crepitate  on  pressure, 
in  consequence  of  accumulation  of  gases  in  the  subcutaneous 
areolar  tissue  as  a  result  of  decomposition.  When  cut  into 
it  is  found  to  be  produced  also  by  accumulation  of  putrid, 
sanious,  and  yellow  gelatinous  material  underneath  the  skin 
and  between  the  muscles  of  the  part ;  also  patches  of  black 
pulpy  substances  may  be  observed  in  various  parts  of  the 
tumour.  Similar  swellings  in  other  cases  occur  in  the 
fore  limb,  breast,  back,  or  sides,  manifesting  the  charac- 
teristic changes  mentioned.  Constitutional  symptoms  run 
high  at  this  stage.  The  earliest  signs  may  be  observed 
before  any  local  disorder  when  a  herd  is  under  close  super- 
vision. They  are  those  of  general  disorder  and  acute  fever. 
The  occurrence  of  tumefaction  is  said  to  be  accompanied  by 
diminution  in  the  constitutional  symptoms,  but  we  can 
hardly  regard  this  as  correct;  the  change  consists  rather 
in  inability  of  the  constitution  any  longer  to  maintain  the 
acute  fever.      The  animal  rapidly  loses  strength,  maintains 


172  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

the  recumbent  position,  becomes  tympanitic  and  comatose, 
and  death  may  occur  even  within  twelve  hours  after  the 
first  manifestation  of  lameness.  In  the  early  stages  the 
bowels  are  torpid,  and  during  the  acute  attack  the  fjeces 
may  be  bloody,  and  the  urine  is  highly  coloured  from  ad- 
mixture with  blood.  This  is  an  acutely  painful  disease ; 
the  animal  at  first  stands  with  straightened  neck  and 
muzzle  protruded,  breathing  rapidly,  and  sometimes  moan- 
ing. Some  few  cases  recover,  the  constitutional  energy 
being  sufficiently  powerful  to  throw  off  those  parts  which 
have  undergone  mortification.  The  tumours  burst  spon- 
taneously, and  by  ordinary  processes  large  masses  of  dead 
tissue  are  removed,  whereby  deep  and  extensive  ulcers  are 
left  which  heal  by  granulation,  or,  in  some  cases,  it  is 
said,  by  cicatrisation  with  a  considerable  breach  of 
surface.  The  skin  sometimes  sloughs  in  patches,  and 
phlyctenae  may  be  observed  in  the  mouth.  Delitescence 
or  metastasis  of  the  tumefactions  is  recorded.  On  post- 
mortem- examination,  besides  the  local  conditions,  the 
general  signs  which  we  have  mentioned  as  occurring  in 
anthrax  are  present.  The  lungs  are  congested,  and  the 
bronchi  filled  with  sanious  and  frothy  mucus. 

Causes. — Dr.  Greenfield  has  observed  in  a  case  of  this 
disease  which  he  reproduced  by  inoculation  of  a  guinea 
pig,  not  Bacillus  anthracisj  but  Bacterium  termo,  or  an 
organism  like  it,  in  the  blood.  Arloing  speaks  of  certain 
refractive  corpuscles  which  do  not  by  culture  develop  into 
the  anthrax  bacillus  as  being  visible  in  the  blood.  The 
disease  is  prevalent  at  certain  times  and  in  certain  places. 
It  is  seen  most  often  in  summer,  and  on  low-lying  or 
undrained  pastures ;  never  occurs  in  winter,  and  seldom 
in  animals  which  are  housed,  or  in  poor  beasts.  It 
seems  to  have  some  predilection  for  well-bred  stock,  and 
generally  has  somewhat  a  sporadic  character.  Its  com- 
municability  by  contagion  is  questionable. 

Treatment. — Free  incisions  should  be  made  into  the 
tumours,  and  the  living  parts  around  stimulated.  Stimu- 
lant tonics  and  internal  disinfectants  should  be  freely 
administered,  and  the   strength    should  be   supported  in 


DISEASES    OP    THE    BLOOD.  173 

every  possible  manner.  When  sloughing  has  taken  place, 
antiseptic  dressings  must  be  applied  to  the  exposed  sur- 
faces. For  prevention  of  outbreaks  among  the  rest  of  the 
herd,  bleeding  is  often  resorted  to,  but  its  value  is  doubt- 
ful. Administration  of  a  cathartic  dose  and  insertion  of 
a  seton  in  the  dewlap  are  recommended  by  experience. 
Antiseptics  should  be  freely  administered,  and  the  animals 
should  be  removed  from  the  pasture  to  which  the  attack 
is  attributed.  When  the  disease  is  seen  in  its  earliest 
stages  bleeding  may  be  practised  with  benefit. 

Pyamia  and  Septicemia  (except  the  "  parturient  fever '' 
forms)  are  not  often  noticed  in  works  on  cattle  pathology, 
but  we  must  devote  a  few  lines  to  them  here,  because  of 
their  importance  in  any  system  of  classification  of  diseases, 
and  because,  though  they  have  not  often  been  observed, 
they  probably  do  affect  bovines.  The  latest  views  con- 
cerning their  nature  may  be  seen  in  the  '  Veterinarian '' 
for  January,  1880,  where  Dr.  Greenfield  draws  a  dis- 
tinction between  these  two  diseases,  which  are  too  often 
confounded. 

Pyemia  is  an  invasion  of  the  system  by  micrococci, 
very  simple  bacteria,  which  are  developed  when  atmo- 
spheric germs  fall  on  pus.  -They  enter  the  system,  cause 
fever,  and  the  formation  of  ''  secondary "  abscess  is  in 
various  parts  of  the  body.  They  are  enabled  to  produce 
the  abscesses  by  accumulation  in  branches  of  small  blood- 
vessels and  migration  into  the  surrounding  intercellular 
interspaces,  there  giving  rise  to  irritation.  The  patient 
frequently  succumbs  to  the  weakening  efPects  of  con- 
siderable suppuration  and  fever.  Cruzel  treats  of  this 
disease  at  some  length. 

Septicemia  results  from  the  entry  into  the  blood  of  one 
of  the  organisms  which  abound  in  putrid  solutions.  It  is 
probably  not  the  ordinary  bacterium  of  putrefaction 
{B,  termo).  The  blood  undergoes  putrefactive  changes, 
and  the  whole  system  collapses,  yielding  to  gangrenous 
results  in  various  parts  of  the  body.  It  supervenes  on 
poisoned  wounds,  &c. 

Paetueient  Septicemia,  "  Parturient  Fever,^^  has  been 


174  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

confused  with  parturient  apoplexy.  It  is  apparently  only 
ordinary  septicaemia,  originating  through  lesions  of  the 
genital  organs,  and,  frequently,  putrefactive  decomposition 
of  genital  products.  Thus,  it  has  been  observed  after  abor- 
tion, when  laceration  of  the  cotyledons  of  the  uterus 
occurs.  Also  it  is  associated  with  cases  of  retention  of 
foetal  membranes,  decomposition  of  the  foetus,  or  the 
introduction  of  instruments,  hands  of  an  operator,  &c., 
contaminated  with  septic  matter.  It  generally  appears 
within  a  week  after  calving,  and  is  almost  always  accom- 
panied by  metritis.  The  ordinary  symptoms  of  this  latter 
affection  are  modified  by  the  septicaemic  condition.  Ecchy- 
moses  take  place  on  serous  and  mucous  membranes. 
Characteristic  gangrenous  ulcers  and  diphtheritic  deposits 
are  to  be  seen  in  the  vulva,  vagina,  and  uterus.  The 
labia  are  swollen,  tender,  and  from  between  them  is  dis- 
charged a  foetid  brownish  matter.  Tympany,  ascites, 
and  other  complications  appear.  The  temperature  falls 
very  low,  the  pulse  becomes  imperceptible,  and  the  respi- 
rations very  quick,  and  there  is  loss  of  power  in  the  hind 
limbs  before  death. 

Treatment. — Kemove  from  among  other  cows,  for  they 
are  liable  to  infection.  Disinfect  the  discharges  and  hands 
of  the  operator,  remove  the  decomposing  foetus  or  en- 
velopes, and  inject  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid  into  the 
uterus.  Apply  glycerin  and  carbolic  acid  directly  to 
any  ulcers  within  reach.  Stimulants  must  be  administered 
freely.  Quinine  has  been  highly  recommended  in  such 
cases. 

By  some  authors  all  forma  of  ''  parturient  apoplexy  *' 
are  attributed  to  specific  organisms.  We  are  not  assured 
of  this,  however,  and  shall  see  that  our  best  authorities 
are  not  of  this  opinion. 

Here  we  ought  to  notice  that  a  Septic  Mammitis  of 
contagious  character  is  recorded  by  continental  observers. 
Professor  Diekerhoff  investigated  an  outbreak  in  Olden- 
burg ('Veterinary  Journal/  viii,  335).  It  commenced  in 
1873  and  ''  still  continues/^  It  commences  in  the  teats,  and 
the  inflammatory  action    extends    thence    into   the  milk 


DISEASES    OP    THE    BLOOD.  175 

ducts  and  intimate  structure  of  the  mammary  gland.  It 
produces  changes  similar  to  those  which  result  from  or- 
dinary mammitis ;  there  is  slight  fever  present.  It  affects 
all  female  bovines,  even  before  the  functional  activity  of 
the  gland  commences,,  and  persists  until  the  next  calving. 
It  often  destroys  one  or  more  quarters  of  the  gland. 
Occasionally  suppuration  takes  place,  and  sometimes  the 
gland  loses  secreting  power  by  complete  induration  of  its 
lining  membrane.  It  is  attributed  to  local  contagion,  the 
virus  being  either  conveyed  by  the  milker^s  hand,  or  ob- 
tained when  the  animal  lies  down  where  diseased  milk  has 
been  spilt.  Franck  (see  Fleming's  '  Veterinary  Obstetrics/ 
p.  695)  injected  pus  from  the  udder  of  an  affected  animal 
into  that  of  a  healthy  cow,  and  thus  communicated  the 
disorder.  He  considers  most  cases  of  mammitis  septic,  and 
has  found  bacteria  (micrococci)  in  the  milk  in  this  disease. 
But  we  must  remember  that  milk  is  one  of  the  best  culture 
fluids  for  all  forms  of  bacteria,  and  so  the  forms  he  ob- 
served may  have  been  harmless.  The  disease  is  attri- 
buted to  a  septic  ferment,  causing  decomposition,  which 
leads  to  inflammation -producing  substances,  when  under- 
going development  in  stagnant  milk  in  the  udder. 
Milking  every  two  hours  and  destruction  or  disinfection  of 
the  milk  are  suggested  as  the  best  measures  in  these  cases. 

Glanders  and  Farcy  have  been  described  as  affecting 
the  ox.  This  results  from  mistaken  diagnosis,  malig- 
nant catarrh  and  certain  eruptive  disorders  having  been, 
thus  confounded  with  the  disorder,  which  is  with  difficulty, 
if  at  all,  communicable  from  the  horse  to  ruminants.  The 
farcinous  form  of  equinia  may  be  confused  with  ordinary 
inflammation  of  lymphatics  such  as  results  from  a  poisoned 
wound  of  any  kind, 

Strangles  J  too,  has  erroneously  been  stated  to  affect  the 
ox,  scrofulous  enlargement  of  the  parotid  and  submaxillary 
glands,  as  well  as  sporadic  inflammation  of  the  salivary 
glands,  having  been  recorded  under  this  heading.  We 
are  not  aware  whether  any  attempts  have  been  made  to 
communicate  this  disease  from  the  horse  to  the  ox  by 
inoculation. 


176  LOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

Erysipelas  is  probably  somewbat  similar  in  its  nature. 
There  are  on  record  some  cases  of  its  occurrence  in  cattle, 
but  this  point  is  contested.  It  is  a  specific  inflammation  of 
the  skin  and  subcutaneous  areolar  tissue,  which  sometimes 
also  affects  the  mucous  membranes,  and  is  considered  to 
be  infectious.  There  is  a  highly  congested  condition  of 
the  cutaneous  vessels,  so  that  the  skin  has  a  scarlet  colour 
temporarily  removable  by  pressure.  Is  remarkably  tense, 
and  the  seat  of  a  peculiarly  intense  burning  sensation. 
This  spreads  rapidly  and  terminates  in  resolution,  effusion 
of  a  considerable  amount  of  serum  (forming  blebs),  and 
gangrene  of  patches  of  skin.  The  latter  is  seldom  fol- 
lowed by  recovery.  In  phlegmonous  erysipelas  the 
areolar  subcutaneous  tissue  is  involved,  and  deep-seated 
suppuration  is  liable  to  occur.  Treatment  comprises  dis- 
infection and  fomentations  of  affected  parts,  and  such 
constitutional  measures  as  may  seem  necessary  to  support 
the  strength  of  the  animal.  This  disease  may  attack  one 
animal  several  times.  When  there  is  a  constitutional 
tendency  to  this  disorder  an  erysipelatous  patch  appears 
around  any  wound  and  rapidly  spreads.  In  this  disease 
the  fever  generally  runs  high. 

Diphtheria  of  man  is  attributed  to  micrococci,  which 
invade  the  system  and  bring  about  changes  in  the  mucous 
membranes,  especially  that  of  the  air  passages,  resulting 
in  a  characteristic  highly  consistent  false  membrane, 
which  forms  casts  of  the  larynx,  trachea,  and  bronchi. 
When  a  firm  cast  of  a  passage  results  from  deposition  of 
lymph  on  the  surface  of  a  mucous  membrane  it  is  a 
crujpous  layer,  but  when  the  deeper  structures  are  involved 
so  that  the  membrane  adheres  more  firmly  to  the  surface 
from  which  it  is  not  removable  without  leaving  an  ulcer 
it  is  diphtheritic.  Probably  crupous  formations  are  non- 
specific, while  diphtheritic  are  due  to  special  organisms 
destroying  the  texture  of  the  corium.  Armatage  speaks 
of  croup  as  having  "  been  observed  in  the  cow  with  greater 
frequency  than  other  lower  animals,'^  and  Williams  men- 
tions the  same  disorder  as  affecting  "  young  cattle,  varying 
from  a  few  weeks  to  a  few  months  old,  when  kept  on  low. 


DISEASES    OP   THE    BLOOD.  177 

damp  pastures^  more  especially  in  meadows  near  rivers^ 
and  during  the  fall  of  the  year/^  And  he  says,  "  I  have 
seen  this  disease  in  one  district  only/^  Still  he  views  it 
as  non-specific.  Mr.  W.  Beach  worked  up  this  subject  in 
the  commencement  of  the  present  year,  and  came  to  the 
conclusions,  which  he  expressed  in  an  essay  read  before 
the  Veterinary  Medical  Association,  that  diphtheria  affects 
cattle,  and  is  probably  originated  by  outbreaks  of  the 
same  disease  in  man,  also  that  the  disease  termed  croup  does 
not  exist  in  lower  animals,  cases  which  have  been  described 
under  this  heading  being  diphtheritic.  He  has  sufficiently 
supported  his  views  to  sanction  our  insertion  of  an  account 
of  the  disease  known  as  diphtheria  or  croup  here,  but  we 
would  have  it  clearly  understood  that  we  believe  our  data 
on  the  subject  are  not  sufficiently  numerous  to  warrant 
any  permanent  conclusions.  Some  day,  perhaps,  the  ques- 
tion will  be  elucidated  by  experimentation. 

Symptoms, — Fever,  giving  rise  to  a  quick,  hard  pulse ; 
sore  throat  with  swelling,  difficulty  in  swallowing, 
paroxysmal  cough,  discharge  of  mucus  from  the  nostrils 
and  of  saliva  from  the  mouth ;  breathing  quickened ;  a 
crowing  sound  during  inspiration,  also  laryngeal  spasm, 
which  is  very  liable  to  come  on  suddenly  when  the  animal 
is  excited;  debility,  denoted  by  the  usual  signs,  brought 
about  by  the  inability  to  introduce  a  due  amount  of  air 
into  the  lungs,  also  by  imperfect  feeding.  Later,  the  pulse 
becomes  weak,  and  the  coughing  more  violent,  until  on 
about  the  third  day  either  casts  of  the  bronchi  or  flakes  of 
lymph  are  coughed  up,  and  the  animal  may  recover. 
Sometimes  suffocation  occurs  before  this  has  had  time  to 
take  place. 

Autojpsy  discloses  the  larynx,  trachea,  and  bronchi,  and 
also  the  tonsils,  lined  more  or  less  perfectly  by  a  greyish 
consistent  membrane,  which  in  a  fresh  case  is  firmly 
attached,  but  in  one  of  some  standing  is  loosened  by 
effusion  or  suppuration  beneath  it.  Micrococci  have  been 
observed  in  these  deposits  taken  from  man. 

Treatment. — Nurse  with  great  care,  especially  giving 
liquid  diet.      Steam  the  air  passages.      Give  a  free  supply 

12 


178  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

of  water  with  nitre  and  clilorate  of  potash  in  it.  Secure 
as  much  fresh  air  for  the  patient  as  possible ;  if  suffoca- 
tion threatens  perform  tracheotomy.  The  seat  of  the 
operation  must  be  determined  by  auscultation  of  the 
trachea.  Where  false  membranes  are  present  a  peculiar 
vibration  results  from  the  rush  of  air.  As  a  precau- 
tionary measure  we  should  disinfect.  In  each  case  we 
should  endeavour  to  prove  or  disprove  relation  with  a 
similar  outbreak  in  man.  Pigs  and  other  domesticated 
animals  are  said  to  be  affected  by  this  disorder.  Diph- 
theria of  man  has  been  attributed  to  ^' garget^'  in  cattle 
(at  a  meeting  of  the  Pathological  Society).  The  idea  was 
originated  by  Dr.  Power,  who  totally  ignored  the  intimate 
acquaintance  which  veterinary  surgeons  have  with  mam- 
mitis.  His  ideas  were  soon  refuted,  but,  as  Mr.  Beach 
suggested,  may  there  not  be  a  diphtheritic  form  of  mam- 
mitis  of  the  cow  ?  We  are  not  in  a  position  to  disprove 
this.      It  must  be  considered  a  question  for  the  future. 

Hitherto  among  specific  disorders  we  have  remarked 
communicability  from  one  animal  to  another.  There  are 
specific  diseases,  however,  which  cannot  be  transmitted  in 
this  way ;  they  occur  as  epizootics  or  enzootics,  and  seem 
to  be  associated  with  special  conditions  of  the  air.  These 
atmospheric  states  may  be  electrical,  chemical,  or,  as  is 
most  probable,  due  to  the  prevalence  of  minute  organisms. 
This  view  is  strongly  advocated  by  the  celebrated  ob- 
server Leydig,  who  goes  so  far  as  to  compare  ordinary 
contagious  disorders  to  trichiniasis,  which  disease  one 
warm-blooded  animal  directly  communicates  to  another, 
and  these  non-contagious  diseases  to  trematode  invasion, 
where  externally  to  the  warm-blooded  body  is  an  inter- 
mediary bearer  in  which  the  parasite  develops  until 
fit  to  enter  the  body  of  the  high  vertebrate.  In  the 
latter  case  it  will  be  observed  that  no  direct  communica- 
tion of  disorder  can  occur.  So  it  is  with  influenza  and 
its  allies.  Higher  animals  can  only  become  affected 
as  a  result  of  the  maturation  of  the  (probably  organic) 
poison  in  the  air.  We  mention  this  as  the  most  plausible 
explanation  of  influenzoid  affections   with  which  we  are 


DISEASES    OP    THE    BLOOD.  179 

acquainted.  The  epizootic  attack  of  influenza  seems  to 
extend  in  a  definite  direction  witli  varying  rapidity ;  from 
the  subtle  nature  of  the  poison  it  is  difficult  to  guard 
against.  It  affects  the  majority  of  animals  in  a  neighbour- 
hood, and  often  its  progress  in  the  system  is  marked  by 
extreme  and  rapid  debility.  It  has  been  observed  in 
islands,  whither  it  must  have  been  conveyed  by  the  air, 
since  they  have  not  been  visited  from  the  mainland  during 
an  outbreak.  Many  of  the  phenomena  of  these  affections  may 
be  explained  on  the  theory  of  clouds  of  disease-producing 
bodies  in  the  air.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  diseases 
of  this  nature  is  enteric  fever  of  man.  It  can  generally 
be  associated  with  ingestion  of  impure  water  polluted  with 
the  filterings  of  drains  and  cesspools,  the  intermediary 
phase  of  the  disease-generating  organism  being  passed  in 
human  ejecta.  Some  have  attributed  outbreaks  of  this 
disease  among  men  to  consumption  of  diseased  milk,  and 
also  of  diseased  flesh,  but  the  diagnosis  of  enteric  fever 
in  man  is  not  accurate.  Trichinosis,  for  instance,  is 
mistaken  for  it,  and  is  liable  to  be  confounded  with  any 
gastro- enteric  disturbance.  Where  there  could  have  been 
no  doubt  about  the  diagnosis,  the  typhoid  or  enteric  fever 
has  been  traced  to  polluted  water  admixed  with  the  milk. 
When  influenza  is  prevalent  as  a  panzootic  it  is  said  to 
sometimes  affect  the  ox,  but  the  most  remarkable  influen- 
zoid  disease  of  cattle  is  known  as  malignant  cataeeh, 
COEYZA,  or  "  glanders ''  (but  with  the  disease  of  the  same 
name  affecting  the  horse  it  has  not  the  slightest  relation). 
It  is  a  specific  febrile  disorder,  the  lesions  of  which  are 
most  marked  on  the  mucous  membrane,  especially  that  of 
the  facial  sinuses.  It  is  non-contagious,  and  generally 
affects  only  two  or  three  animals  in  a  herd.  Old  animals 
seldom,  if  ever,  suffer  from  it.  Fever  is  marked  at  the 
commencement,  but  later  there  is  extreme  prostration  and 
the  animal  dies  asphyxiated.  The  visible  mucous  mem- 
branes are  purple  and  dry,  and  later  tend  to  undergo 
ulceration.  There  is  an  abundant  flow  of  saliva  from  the 
mouth  in  the  early  stages,  and  the  bowels  are  torpid,  but 
soon   diarrhoea   sets  in,  the  urine  becomes  offensive,  and 


180  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

the  breath  fetid.  The  eyelids  are  swollen,  admission 
of  light  into  the  eye  proves  painful,  and  there  is  profuse 
lachryraation.      There  is  also  a  painful  cough. 

Sloughing  ulceration  then  sets  in,  the  discharges  from 
mouth,  eyes,  and  nostrils  become  purulent,  and  the  latter 
often  sanguineous.  Ulceration  of  the  cornea  may  occur, 
ulcers    are    visible    in    the   Schneiderian   membrane,  and 


Fia.  25. — Malignant  catarrh.     Second  stage.     A  horn  lost,  and  nostrils,  lips, 
&c.,  ulcerated.     (Armatage.) 

since  these  extend  into  the  sinuses  the  pus  becomes  pent 
up  in  these  cavities.  The  vascular  investment  of  the  horn- 
cores  is  involved  in  the  diseased  action,  so  that  the  horns 
drop  off.  Red  patches  form  in  the  mouth,  and  then 
slough  away.  It  is  said  the  hoofs  also  sometimes  fall  oif, 
BO  that  severe  lameness  is  present.     Pregnant  animals  abort. 

On  post-mortem  examination  the  sinuses  are  found  full 
of  fetid  pus,  and  their  lining  membrane  very  considerably 
ulcerated.  Superficial  lesions  and  ecchymoses  are  evident 
on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  air  and  alimentary 
passages.  Ecchymoses  also  occur  on  the  serous  mem- 
branes, and  there  is  general  venous  distension  with  dark 
blood. 

Treatment — Change  of  air  as  much  as  possible,  nursing, 
liberal  steaming  of  the   head.      Administration  of  stimu- 


DISEASES    OF    THE    BLOOD.  181 

lants  combined  with  vegetable  tonics.  During  tlie  stage 
of  convalescence  mineral  tonics,  liberal  diet,  and  fresh  air. 
Nutritive  and  laxatives  enemas  are  rendered  particularly 
useful  by  the  swollen  and  irritable  state  of  the  fauces. 
The  ulcerations  may  be  treated  with  solution  of  carbolic 
acid  or  chloride  of  zinc,  and  the  same  application  may  be 
made  to  any  exposed  keratogenous  structures.  Death 
gradually  occurs  in  less  than  a  week  after  the  attack. 

Eabies  (erroneously  called  Hydeophobia). — The  poison 
which  exists  in  its  greatest  virulency  in  the  saliva  of  the 
mad  dog  induces  disease  when  introduced  by  inoculation 
into  the  system  of  the  ox.  It  has  been  proved  that  from 
the  latter  animal  the  disease  may  be  conveyed  to  man  by 
the  saliva  falling  on  an  abraded  surface.  The  virus  of 
rabies  is  remarkable  in  many  respects.  Thus,  its  incuba- 
tory period  is  long,  usually  in  the  ox  about  a  fortnight, 
but  in  man  it  has  been  found  to  extend  over  years.  In 
this  respect  rabies  reminds  us  of  scrofula  and  cancer.  It 
is  held  by  most  authorities  that  the  virus  remains  during 
this  time  undergoing  changes  at  the  seat  of  introduction, 
and  this  view,  is  confirmed  by  the  local  irritation  almost 
invariably  present  when  acute  symptoms  set  in,  which 
again  reminds  us  of  the  above-mentioned  diseases.  Many 
animals  are  able  to  resist  the  virus,  so  that  often  true 
inoculations  do  not  result  in  acute  symptoms,  and  it  seems 
that  the  virulence  very  soon  passes  from  the  carcase. 

Symptoms. — Some  three  weeks  or  so  after  the  animal 
has  been  bitten  it  manifests  general  signs  of  disorder 
and  is  very  excitable,  and  probably  the  sexual  func- 
tions are  perverted,  as  indicated  by  increased  sexual 
appetite,  especially  in  the  male.  The  appetite  is  depraved, 
the  faeces  scanty,  and  the  patient  is  either  in  a  dull  state  or 
vicious,  charging  at  and  '^  riding  ''  other  cattle,  and  occa- 
sionally attempting  to  bite  them.  The  excitement  becomes 
more  marked,  the  patient  bellows,  but  the  voice  is  said  to  be 
altered  in  tone.  A  profuse  discharge  of  frothy  saliva 
flows  from  the  mouth,  there  is  a  constant  champing  of  the 
jaws,  the  eyes  are  projecting,  and  the  conjunctivae  injected. 
Painful  tenesmus  is  present.      This  lasts  for  some   time. 


182  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

and  fhe  animal  loses  flesh  rapidly,  paralysis  of  tlie  hind 
limbs  occurs,  and  death  soon  ensues.  The  recurrence  of 
irritation  at  the  seat  of  injury  takes  place  in  the  ox  as  in 
other  animals,  and  the  patient  may  endeavour  to  tear  his 
inoculated  limb  to  pieces.  The  ox  thus  affected  plunges  his 
nose  into  water  when  it  is  presented  to  him,  but  is  prevented 
from  drinking  by  spasms'  of  the  throat.  The  period  of 
incubation  is  shorter  when  the  head  is  the  seat  of  inocula- 
tion than  when  other  parts  of  the  body  are  injured. 

Fost-mortem  appearances. — Congestion  of  the  brain  and 
its  meninges  and  accumulation  of  serous  fluid  in  the 
arachnoid  sac.  Accumulation  in  and  around  the  cerebral 
vessels  of  corpuscles  of  a  special  character.  Small  circum- 
scribed spots  of  blood  extravasation  in  various  parts  of  the 
body.  Congestion  of  the  mucous  surface  at  the  base  of 
the  tongue  and  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  abomasum 
and  bowels.  Foreign  bodies  in  the  rumen.  Blood  dark 
red,  viscid,  and  imperfectly  coagulable. 

Treatment. — Curative,  ineffectual  and  dangerous  ;  there- 
fore, except  for  experimental  purposes,  not  to  be  attempted. 
Prophylactic  :  when  an  animal  has  been  bitten  by  a  rabid 
dog  shave  off  the  hair  around  every  injury,  and  deeply 
cauterise  with  the  red-hot  iron,  or  excise  with  a  consider- 
able part  of  the  surrounding  tissues.  Nitrate  of  silver 
and  other  caustics  have  been  recommended  in  these  cases, 
but  it  is  difficult  to  ensure  application  to  all  the  wounds, 
and  especially  to  their  depths. 

Diagnosis. — Rabies  has  been  mistaken  for  phrenitis. 
In  the  latter  disease  the  wildness  of  the  animal  is  perfectly 
uncontrolled,  but  in  the  former  there  is  a  '*  method  in  his 
madness.'^  It  also  resembles  mania  puerperalis  (which  see). 
The  flesh  of  animals  which  have  died  from  rabies  has  been 
eaten  with  impunity,  but  ought  preferably  to  be  destroyed. 

It  has  been  observed  for  a  long  time  that  even  ordinary 
febrile  attacks  become  less  severe  towards  midday,  but 
aggravated  in  the  morning  and  at  night.  This  we  have 
been  accustomed  to  vaguely  associate  with  the  phases  of 
rotation  of  the  earth,  &c.  Certain  researches  upon  remit- 
tent fever,  which  have  been  lately  made  by  Dr.  Manson  and 


DISEASES    OP   THE    BLOOD.  183 

others,  promise  to  elucidate  our  pathology  of  these  disorders, 
and  to  explain  occasional  or  regular  access  of  intensity  of 
febrile  diseases.  Spirilla  are  corkscrew-shaped  organisms, 
which  occur  in  the  blood  in  intermittent  fevers ;  they  were 
considered  special  life  phases  of  bacteria;  by  observers  of 
high  standing  they  are  thought  to  be  nematodes.  Manson 
notes  that  they  are  absent  from  the  blood  of  the  patient 
during  midday,  but  are  generally  diffused  through  that  fluid 
at  night,  when  their  intermediary  bearers,  the  mosquitoes, 
are  actively  blood-sucking.  We  have  already  observed 
that  disorders  of  this  intermittent  character  affect  the  ox, 
especially  in  low  lying,  marshy  places.  Quinine  is  the 
most  useful  of  the  antiperiodic  agents  suited  for  these 
cases. 

Parasites  in  the  blood,  or  which  are  distributed  through- 
out the  system  by  the  blood,  and  thus  are  found  in  many 
parts  of  the  body. — Haematozoa,  parasites  whose  habitat  is 
the  blood,  though  frequent  in  some  animals,  have  not  yet 
been  observed  in  the  ox.  Many  entozoa  are  supposed 
when  immature  to  enter  into  the  blood,  and  by  that  fluid 
to  be  carried  to  their  special  habitats,  and  when  they 
arrive  there  instinctively  to  migrate  through  the  walls  of  the 
blood-vessels,  just  as  we  may  imagine  the  contagia  of  specific 
eruptive  disorders  do  in  selecting  special  membranes  as  their 
seat  of  lesion.  Of  these  we  need  only  instance  Strongylus 
micruruSy  the  producer  of  parasitic  bronchitis.  Other 
entozoa  are  carried  in  an  immature  condition  indifferently 
to  various  tissues.  Of  these  the  most  important  clinically 
is  Echinococcus  veterinorum,  the  cystic  phase  of  Taenia 
echinococcus  of  the  dog. 

Echinococcus  Disease  is  especially  prevalent  in  certain 
localities,  as,  for  instance,  the  Yale  of  Aylesbury,  and  con- 
sists in  the  growth  in  certain  organs,  notably  the  lungs 
and  liver,  of  cysts,  frequently  multilocular,  and  always 
enclosed  in  a  dense  capsule  and  filled  with  a  watery  fluid. 
The  true  cysts  is  thin- walled,  of  a  pure  white  colour,  and 
soft.  As  these  grow  very  gradually  they  cause  little,  if 
any,  functional  disturbance,  so  that  often  their  presence  is 
not  even  suspected,  the  bearer  being  slaughtered,  and  the 


184 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


liver,  for  instance,  found  filled  with  enormous  cysts,  being 
thereby  much  enlarged  and  deformed,  and  with  compara- 
tively little  secreting  substance  remaining.    These  parasites 


Fig.  26. — Tcsnia  eckinoccoccus.     A.  Mattire  form, 
or  scolex  of  cyst  (Cobbold). 


B.  Tajnia  head 


have  been  observed  in  many  parts  of  the  body, even  in  bones; 
they  seem  to  prefer  protected  situations,  as  parenchymatous 
or  soft  viscera.  Dogs,  foxes,  and  other  canine  bearers  of 
Tania  echinococcus  pass  the  segments  of  that  parasite 
with  their  fsBces,  and  thus  act  as  diffusers  of  this  disorder. 
Parts  containing  the  cysts  should  never  be  given  to  dogs, 
but  destroyed.  Intimate  association  of  dogs  with  cattle  is 
related  to  prevalence  of  this  disorder.  The  eradication  of 
this  disease  is  of  great  importance,  as  it  causes  a  certain 
mortality  among  human  beings,  especially  in  Iceland. 

In  concluding  our  notice  on  specific  blood  d'iseases,  we 
must  observe  one  remarkable  argument  in  favour  of  the 
hypothesis  of  their  parasiticnature.  As  methods  of  research 
have  improved  diseases  previously  classed  among  the  exan- 
themata have  been  traced  to  animal  or  vegetable  parasites ; 
favus  and  scabies  prove  this.  Hurtrel  d^Arboval  was  only  in 
accordance  with  his  times  when  he  gravely  discussed  the 
value  of  vaccination  as  a  preventive  of  the  latter  disorder. 


P0IS0K3j^^^.-__;^ 185 

>  OF   THE 

NIVERSITY 

CHAPTER  II   {Continued), 

Addendum  1. — Poisons. 

In  tbe  consideration  of  matters  which  act  deleteriously 
upon  the  animal  system  some  difficulty  is  experienced  in 
defining  the  term  poison.  For  if  we  accept  the  common 
interpretation  of  the  term,  anything  taken  by  an  animal 
which  causes  sickness  or  death,  we  are  at  once  faced  by 
the  difficulty  that  certain  parasites  and  mechanical  impedi- 
ments to  passages,  as  calculi  or  a  turnip  in  the  oesophagus 
may  be  thus  considered,  and  any  alimentary  matter  would 
thus  be  a  poison  if  taken  in  sufficient  quantity  or  in  an  un- 
prepared state.  Dr.  Taylor's  definition  is  about  the  best 
with  which  we  are  acquainted  :  "  A  poison  is  a  substance 
which,  when  absorbed  into  the  blood,  is  capable  of  seriously 
affecting  health  or  of  destroying  life.^^  But  it  seems  to 
exclude  certain  corrosive  agents  which  we  must  consider 
as  poisons.  A  poison  is  any  substance  which,  when  intro- 
duced into  the  body  in  moderate  doses,  is  capable  of 
producing  serious  disorder  or  death,  without  acting  me- 
chanically or  by  vital  growth  and  propagation.  We  thus 
exclude,  on  the  one  hand,  impactions  of  foreign  bodies,  on  the 
other,  parasites,  and  especially  bacterial  organisms,  which 
are  the  active  principles  of  the  majority  of  animal  poisons 
(so-called)  or  preferably  "virulent^^  matters.  A  considerable 
analogy  exists  between  poisons  and  medical  agents,  and 
no  small  difficulty  will  be  found  in  distinguishing  one  from 
the  other.  This  arises  from  the  fact  that  there  is  no  true 
distinction  but  that  of  degree  in  action ;  every  therapeu- 
tical agent  has  a  maximum  dose,  which  varies  according  to 
the  special  circumstances  of  each  case,  and  if  this  be 
exceeded  will  act  as  a  poison.  Thus,  our  most  powerful 
poisons,  when  given  in  moderate  doses  are  our  most  useful 


186  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

medicines.  Thus,  we  may  revert  to  our  table  of  medi- 
cinal agents  as  classified,  and  shall  be  able  to  examine 
poisons  under  the  various  headings  there  indicated.  Of 
Hsematics,  acids,  alkalies,  tonics,  and  chaljbeates  do  not 
exert  a  toxic  action  by  passing  into  the  blood,  but  by 
their  irritant  and  astringent  effects  upon  the  surfaces 
with  which  they  come  into  contact.  Hence  they  must  be 
considered  somewhat  as  astringents  and  arranged  with 
astringents  in  the  Irritant  division.  Again,  general 
stimulants  cannot  be  considered  poisonous  in  the  same 
sense  of  the  term,  for  they  simply  accelerate  vital  process. 
It  is  only  the  most  powerful  of  them  which  exert  any  direct 
toxic  effects,  as  oxygen  gas  when  inhaled  in  an  undiluted 
condition.      Thus  we  classify  poisons  as — 

["Special  stimulants,  as  strychnia. 
Neueotics  J  Narcotics,  as  belladonna. 

I  Sedatives  I  ^^"^.^f'  ^s  prussic  acid. 

{_  I  Special,  as  digitalis. 

r Simple  irritants,  as  mustard. 
J  J  Corrosives,  as  bichloride  of  mercury. 

1EEITANTS<  Astringents,  as  oak  shoots. 

[_Eliminatives,  as  nitrate  of  potash. 

With  regard  to  the  particular  conditions  of  the  animal  to 
which  poisonous  agents  are  administered,  we  must  remem- 
ber the  phenomena  of  idiosyncrasy  and  toleration.  Large 
quantities  of  most  vegetable  agents  are  necessary  to  exert 
a  poisonous  action  on  herbivora,  and  a  small  amount  of 
animal  poison  is  effectual,  but  there  are  marked  exceptions 
to  this  as  to  all  other  rules.  The  phenomenon  of  tolerance 
is  the  condition  of  becoming  accustomed  to  the  remedy,  so 
that  larger  doses  are  required  than  at  first  to  produce  medi- 
cinal effects.  Sometimes,  however,  agents  are  cumulative, 
so  that  successive  doses  at  length  simultaneously  exert  their 
action  and  may  thus  destroy  the  patient.  This  results  in 
the  case  of  those  agents  which  are  not  readily  thrown  off 
from  the  system  by  the  excretory  organs.  We  see  this 
in  the  action  of  digitalis,  which  only  after  several  doses  is 
removed  by  the  kidneys.  Certain  diseases  may  be  con- 
founded with  poisoning,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  extreme 
difficulty  in  some  cases  to  make  a  correct  diagnosis.  We 
shall  not  be  surprised  at  this  if  we  consider  that  poisons 


POISONS.  187 

are  but  special  causes  of  certain  and  varied  disorders, 
such  as  gastero-enteritis,  tetanus,  and  inflammation  of 
the  kidneys.  Taking  this  view  of  our  subject,  we  shall 
not  here  enter  into  unnecessary  details,  but  shall  confine 
our  attention  to  special  points  in  the  etiology,  sympto- 
matology, and  pathology  of  cases  of  poisoning. 

Causes. — Poisons  are  obtained  by  cattle  in  various  ways. 
Of  these,  the  principal  are  overdose  of  medicinal  agents j 
either  as  a  result  of  mistake  or  ignorance  or  its  accumu- 
lation in  the  foodj  presence  of  deleterious  matters  in  the 
food,  as  poisonous  plants  or  lead  refuse  on  pastures,  or 
poisonous  seeds  incorporated  with  the  proper  ingredients 
of  cakes.  In  these  cases  we  see  that  the  matters  have 
been  passed  into  the  alimentary  canal,  and  this  is  generally 
the  method  of  entry  in  cases  of  malicious  poisoning. 
Thus,  it  behoves  us  in  cases  where  the  slightest  suspicion 
of  foul  play  or  poisoning  is  indicated  to  inquire  closely 
into  the  surroundings  of  the  patient,  whether  it  has 
recently  been  subjected  to  medicinal  treatment,  either 
openly  or  secretly,  by  the  attendants.  This  must  be 
judged  more  by  the  evidence  of  surroundings  than  by 
verbal  statements.  The  accidental  observation  of  a  medi- 
cine bottle  or  of  a  piece  of  waste  paper  may  sometimes 
give  us  more  information  than  an  hour^s  conversation  with 
individuals  who  are  apt  to  endeavour  to  conceal  the  truth 
either  from  shame  or  guilt.  Again,  the  nature  of  the  diet 
and  its  composition  should  be  noted,  and  in  this  respect 
the  practical  investigation  of  pastures  is  of  the  highest 
importance. 

When  called  in  to  a  case  of  supposed  poisoning  of 
animals  out  at  pasture,  the  practitioner  must  set  about  the 
inquiry  with  an  entirely  unprejudiced  mind.  He  will  often 
find  that  the  outbreak  is  one  of  anthracoid  or  other 
enzootic  disease  not  due  to  poison  properly  so-called. 

It  is  in  a  case  of  this  nature  that  the  scientific  prac- 
titioner finds  the  value  of  a  knowledge  of  botany.  When 
called  in  to  put  a  stop  to  some  unusual  fatality  in  a  flock 
or  herd,  after  duly  recording  the  history  of  the  out- 
break,    the    symptoms,    post-mortem     appearances,    and 


188  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

general  treatment  of  the  animals,  lie  directs  his  investi- 
gations to  the  nature  of  the  pasturage.  Careful  inspec- 
tion of  all  parts  of  the  field  or  fields  is  necessary,  for  the 
growth  of  some  plants  is  confined  sometimes  to  very 
small  spots,  and  one  individual  plant  may  destroy  a  herd. 
The  general  and  special  nature  of  the  flora  must  be  ex- 
amined, all  known  plants  being  duly  noted,  all  unknown 
plants  suspected  and  investigated.  The  hedges,  trees,  and 
substances  around  the  field,  which  are  accessible  to  the 
occupant,  must  be  observed,  and  the  general  character  of 
the  ground,  as  nature  of  soil,  elevation,  irregularities  ;  also 
the  kinds  of  manure  which  have  been  used  to  it  must  not 
escape  notice. 

Poisons,  however,  gain  entry  into  the  system  also 
through  the  respiratory  mucous  memhranej  as  in  carbonic 
acid  poisoning  and  overdose  of  chloroform,  or  through  the 
sMiiy  as  where  poisonous  dressings  have  been  applied 
for  skin  disease,  especially  when  surface  abrasions  are 
present.  Cases  are  sometimes  seen  in  which  agents  are 
absorbed  from  wounds,  as  arsenic  in  cases  of  fistula ;  and 
the  subcutaneous  areolar  tissue  may  be  the  seat  of  intro- 
duction of  the  poison,  as  in  overdose  of  agents  by  the 
subcutaneous-injection  method  of  administration.  How- 
ever they  gain  entry  into  the  system  these  agents  either 
give  rise  to  great  local  disorder  or  undergo  absorption, 
and  thus  produce  their  poisonous  effect  as  medicinal  agents 
act.  They  are  in  the  latter  case  sooner  or  later  removed 
by  the  excretory  organs,  which  is  a  fact  of  great  clinical 
value,  for  thus,  by  an  examination  of  the  faeces  or  the 
urine,  a  diagnosis  may  be  confirmed  or  otherwise,  and 
sometimes  guilt  be  brought  home  to  a  culprit  who  would 
otherwise  escape  unless  his  victim  died.  Death  is  pro- 
duced in  the  usual  ways  ;  by  the  action  of  poisons,  either 
directly  or  indirectly,  cessation  of  the  heart's  action  is 
brought  about.  It  must  be  remarked  that  in  cases  of 
proved  or  suspected  poisoning  the  greatest  care  should  be 
exercised  in  making  a  plain  record  of  the  facts,  as, 
perhaps  more  frequently  than  any  others,  these  prove  the 
cause  of  litigation. 


POISONS.  189 

Treatment  comprises  certain  general  principles  of  great 
importance.  The  poisonous  action  may  be  arrested,  if 
we  be  called  in  and  make  our  diagnosis  in  good  time, 
either  by  preventing  the  taking  up  of  the  poison  or  its 
irritant  action  on  the  tissues  by  intermingling  it  with 
mucilaginous  matter.  In  the  case  of  irritants  this  measure 
might  be  supplanted  by  dilution,  but  this  only  tends  to 
promote  absorption,  and  therefore  is  inadmissible  in  the 
case  of  those  poisons  which  act  from  the  blood.  Adminis- 
tration of  such  bland  and  mucilaginous  agents  as  white  of 
eggj  wheat  flour,  and  meal,  or  even  of  blood,  should  be 
one  of  the  first  measures  resorted  to  in  cases  of  poisoning 
through  the  alimentary  canal.  It  has  this  advantage, 
that  the  albuminous  matters  in  some  instances  chemically 
unite  with  the  poisons,  and  so  convert  them  into  insoluble 
and  harmless  albuminates.  This  is  the  simplest  means 
of  antidotal  treatment.  Antidotes  are  of  two  kinds, 
chemical  or  physiological.  The  former  when  they  meet 
poisons  exert  chemical  action  upon  them,  giving  rise  to 
harmless  products.  The  latter  are  available  in  the  case 
of  those  agents  which  act  from  the  blood ;  they  produce 
the  reverse  physiological  action,  and  thus  tend  to  neutra- 
lise the  excessive  effects  of  the  agent.  These  effects  also 
must  be  counteracted  as  much  as  possible  by  such  measures 
as  the  case,  viewed  purely  from  a  clinical  point  of  view, 
seems  to  require.  Sometimes  we  are  enabled  by  direct 
methods  to  remove  the  poison  from  the  system,  as  by 
washing  it  off  from  the  skin  or  by  causing  its  expulsion 
from  the  alimentary  canal  with  greater  rapidity  than  is 
compatible  with  absorption.  Thus,  emetics,  the  stomach- 
pump,  and  cathartic  agents  are  valuable  in  the  hands  of 
the  toxicologist. 

In  observing  the  post-mortem  appearances  we  must 
carefully  examine  the  position  of  the  animal,  the  state 
of  rigor  mortis,  also  the  tendency  to  putrefactive  changes 
in  relation  to  the  length  of  time  which  has  existed 
since  death.  The  conditions  of  the  surface  of  the  body, 
as  indicating  an  easy  death,  or  the  reverse,  should  be 
noted,  and  the  markings  of  the  animal,  for  'purposes  of 


190  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

identification.  Examination  of  the  various  organs  must 
then  be  made  in  the  usual  way,  and  specially  the  eye  and 
nose  must  be  exercised  to  detect  any  unusual  lesion  or 
noteworthy  contents  of  the  alimentary  canal  or  any  special 
odour,  for  some  agents  are  at  once  detectable  by  their 
special  odour  which  they  impart  to  the  blood  (chloroform). 
The  contents  of  the  alimentary  canal  are  of  the  greatest 
importance,  for  small  particles  of  mineral  poison  may  be 
found,  or  leaves  of  special  plants,  or  some  vehicle  of  a 
poisonous  dose  surreptitiously  administered,  such  as  food 
material  not  recently  administered  by  the  owner,  generally 
of  a  tempting  nature.  Some  of  the  contents  of  the 
stomach,  intestines,  and  bladder,  should  be  put  aside  in 
a  closed  and  sealed  vessel  for  chemical  analysis,  and  it  is 
advisable  to  similarly  preserve  portions  of  the  walls  of  the 
stomach,  and  of  the  bowels  and  liver,  as  in  these  will  often 
be  found  traces  of  the  poison.  Here  the  practitioner's  duty 
comes  to  an  end,  unless  he  be  willing  to  adopt  the  methods 
of  testing  suggested  in  works  of  toxicology.  We  may 
remark  that  the  complexity  of  these  processes  generally 
renders  the  opinion  of  an  expert  desirable,  if  any  import- 
ance is  to  be  attached  to  the  case.  It  is  advisable  to  be 
careful  as  to  the  manner  in  which  parts  and  liquids  im- 
pregnated with  the  poison  are  disposed  of,  for  pigs  and 
dogs  may  involuntarily  afford  a  verification  of  our  surmises 
by  the  physiological  test. 

In  special  consideration  of  the  various  kinds  of  poisons 
we  must  observe  certain  characters  general  to  the  groups, 
and  then  those  points  of  importance  with  regard  to  parti- 
cular noxious  agents.  General  stimulants  pass  into  the 
blood  and  are  rapidly  removed ;  they  never  act  as  poisons 
after  absorption,  but  the  Special  Stimulants  are  less  readily 
eliminated,  and,  therefore,  produce  toxic  effects  varying 
with  the  agent.  Thus,  strychnia,  under  its  various  forms, 
nux  vomica,  strychnine,  and  Ignatius  bean,  stimulates  the 
spinal  cord  and  the  nerves  passing  off  from  it,  and  thus 
increases  sensibility  to  a  slight  degree  (Headland),  and 
causes  tetanic  spasm.  It  is  seldom  used  for  malicious 
poisoning,   but  may   be   given   in    overdose.      It    can  be 


POISONS.  191 

detected  in  the  contents  of  the  stomach  by  Stas'  test. 
The  prolonged  and  exaggerated  post-mortem  rigor  is 
also  distinctive.  The  contents  of  the  alimentary  canal  are 
generally  poisonous.  The  body  decomposes  slowly.  Ergot 
of  rye  and  other  ergots  may  be  obtained  from  the  pasture, 
as  this  fungus  grows  not  only  upon  the  rye,  but  on  many 
other  grasses.  It  is  apt  to  prove  the  cause  of  epizootic 
abortion  through  its  special  action  on  the  muscular  fibres 
of  the  pregnant  uterus.  Professor  Robertson  attributes  the 
nervous  disorder,  '^  louping  ill ''  of  sheep,  to  its  action.  It 
is  seldom  given  in  overdose,  but  then  has  a  dangerous  action 
on  the  brain,  producing  at  times  narcotism,  at  other  times 
syncope.  It  is  considered  to  have  a  special  action  also  on 
the  white  muscular  fibres  of  the  small  arteries,  and  hence 
has  been  used  as  a  haemostatic,  but  it  has  been  known  to 
cause  gangrene  of  parts  distant  from  the  centre  of  circu- 
lation. The  symptoms  and  a  careful  examination  of  the 
food  must  prove  our  guide  in  diagnosis  of  these  cases. 
Cathartics,  sedatives  (local  and  general),  and  an  imme- 
diate change  of  pasture,  are  indicated  in  an  enzootic  of 
abortion  due  to  this  poison. 

Naecotics  are  distinguishable  from  sedatives  by  their 
preliminary  stimulating  effects,  and  by  the  fact  that  they 
cause  perversion  of  the  mental  faculties.  Thus,  they  cause 
inebriation  and  delirium,  and  bring  about  death  by  coma, 
whereas  sedatives  produce  syncope. 

O^pium  is  essentially  soporific.  It  is  obtained  by  feeding 
on  white  poppies,  overdose,  and  by  malicious  adminis- 
tration. The  principal  symptom  is  an  uncontrollable 
tendency  to  sleep,  the  animal  stands  or  lies  with  eyes 
closed,  breathing  slow  and  deep,  pulse  full  and  rather 
slow,  opens  the  eyes  sleepily  when  roused  by  any  sound, 
and  then  rapidly  dozes  off  again.  There  is  a  contraction 
of  the  pupil  of  the  eye  and  a  cessation  of  any  pain  from 
which  the  animal  may  have  been  suffering.  These  signs 
become  exaggerated,  the  pulse  imperceptible,  breathing 
infrequent,  and,  finally,  apncea  causes  the  death  of  the 
animal  as  a  culmination  of  coma.  After  death  the  blood, 
contents  of  the  alimentary  canal,  and  tissues  are  found  to 


192  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

smell  of  opium,  and  meconic  acid  and  morphia  may 
be  detected.  The  blood  is  dark,  there  are  ecchy- 
moses  of  serous  membranes,  and  the  contents  of  the 
alimentary  canal  are  hard  and  dry.  With  regard  to 
poisoning  by  the  red  poppy  {Pap aver  rhceas),  Weiss  (as 
quoted  by  Gamgee)  says  : — ^^  Grimm  observed  that  cattle 
having  eaten  much  of  the  red  poppy  had  a  weak,  awkward 
gait,  uttered  a  groan  at  every  step,  were  affected  with 
diarrhoea,  and  remained  in  a  stupid  sleepy  condition. 
Schmager  and  Lichte  witnessed  trembling,  foaming  at  the 
mouth,  loss  of  consciousness  and  sensibility,  rolling  of 
the  eyes,  loud  bellowing,  restlessness,  amounting  even  to 
raving,  tympanitis,  shivering  and  twitching  movements  of 
the  eyes,  fixed  and  widely  dilated  pupil,  agitated  pulse ;  the 
secretion  of  milk  is  stopped.  According  to  Gaullet,  the 
secretion  of  milk  was  watery,  without  fat  or  caseous 
matter,  and  diminished  in  quantity,  the  pulse  small 
and  quick,  skin  dry,  staring  coat,  grinding  of  teeth ; 
the  animals  flew  as  if  rabid  on  the  people  that 
approached  them,  and  bit  themselves  in  the  legs.  There 
was  constipation,  the  faeces  dry  and  tinged  with  blood. 
As  the  symptoms  of  raving  and  roaring  subsided,  the 
animals  became  dull,  stupid,  and  sleepy;  sometimes  they 
lay  down,  at  others  they  stood,  but  every  now  and  then 
the  signs  of  furor  supervened.  In  one,  case  the  cattle  got 
loose,  ran  madly  up  the  village,  and  struck  their  heads 
against  the  walls  and  posts.  The  mad  stage  lasted  for 
about  two  hours ;  the  animals  fell  like  dead,  but  awoke 
again  after  several  hours.  The  food  taken  by  these  animals 
was  examined  by  an  apothecary,  who  found  it  to  consist 
of  about  three  fourths  of  the  corn  poppy,  ripe  and  unripe 
seed  capsules  ;  Adonis  autumnalis  (pheasant's  eye)  ;  del- 
phinium (larkspur),  and  the  remaining  fourth  was  clover.^' 

Camphor,  alcohol,  and  ether  are  also  narcotic  poisons. 

Chloroform  also  may  be  detected  by  its  odour.  Its 
preliminary  stimulating  effect  is  more  powerful  than  that 
of  opium. 

Tobacco  is  also  a  narcotic,  but  inebriant  rather  than 
soporific.      It  is  not  a  frequent  poison  of  cattle. 


POISONS.  1 93 

Hyoscyamus  and  Belladonna  are  obtained  by  accidental 
ingestion  or  overdose,  but  the  fresh  hyoscyamus  herb  is 
said  to  be  eaten  with  impunity  by  Herbivora.  The  sym- 
ptoms induced  are  dilatation  of  the  pupil ;  falling  to  the 
ground,  due  to  loss  of  power  over  the  hind  extremities  ; 
convulsions  and  delirium  ;  relaxations  of  the  various  sphinc- 
ter muscles,  with  diarrhoea ;  coma  sets  in,  and  then  death. 

Treatment  comprises  ruminotomy,  with  complete  removal 
of  contents  ;  stimulants  ;  bleeding  and  cold  applications 
to  the  head.  Poisoning  by  Solanum  dulcamara  is  also  on 
record.    The  conditions  are  similar  to  those  just  described. 

Sedative  Poisons  comprise  hydrocyanic  acid,  aconite, 
conium,  colchicum,  and  yew.  They  produce  death  by 
asthenia  and  syncope.  In  large  doses  they  cause  gid- 
diness and  convulsions,  which  supervene  rapidly,  and 
death  takes  place  in  a  very  short  time.  On  post-mortem 
examination  no  very  marked  lesions  can  be  noted ;  the 
vessels  are  full  of  dark  blood,  and  there  may  be  the 
peculiar  smell  of  the  agent.  Testing  for  the  active  prin- 
ciple is  not  always  satisfactory,  but  a  careful  examination 
of  the  contents  of  the  rumen  will  generally  show  the 
presence  of  portions  of  the  poisonous  plant. 

Hydrocyanic  Acid. — Poisoning  results  from  overdose. 
The  patient,  some  little  time  after  the  administration,  falls, 
breathes  quickly,  and  is  convulsed  ;  the  pupils  are  dilated. 
After  death  there  may  be  observed  a  slight  reddening  of 
the  lining  membrane  of  the  stomach,  and  the  blood  smells 
strongly  of  the  poison. 

Treatment  :  stimulants  and  iron  salts.  Detection  in 
recent  cases  results  from  its  characteristic  odour  and 
chemical  reaction  s^ 

Aconite  {Aconitum  napeUus),  the  monkshood  or  wolfs- 
bane, is  a  plant  grown  in  gardens,  and  wild  in  some  parts 
of  this  country.  It  is  easily  recognisable  by  its  peculiarly 
dark-green  pedatipartite  leaves  and  its  blue  irregular  calyx. 
This  agent  produces  numbness  of  the  surface  of  the  body, 
excites  vomition  and  tympany ;  the  pupil  is  contracted  ; 
over-dose  causes  hiccough  ;   ammonia  is  the  best  antidote. 

Conium   {Conium  maculatum),  the  hemlock,  is  a  white- 

13 


194  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

flowered  umbellif er,  rather  common,  and  readily  detectable 
from  similar  plants  by  its  spotted  stem.  It  causes 
rapidly  spreading  paralysis  of  the  voluntary  muscles,  then 
of  those  of  respiration,  leading  to  death  by  apncea.  The 
pulse  is  small,  feeble,  and  slow,  the  pupil  dilated ;  these 
cases  must  be  treated  by  evacuation  of  the  rumen  and 
stimulants. 

Colchicum  autumnale,  the  meadow  saffron,  is  a  bulbous, 
lily-like  plant,  with  purple  flowers,  frequent  in  this 
country.  When  consumed  by  cattle  it  causes  violent 
catharsis,  the  faeces  being  nearly  liquid  and  fetid,  tym- 
pany and  other  signs  of  abdominal  disorder,  pupils 
dilated,  perspiration,  loss  of  power,  coldness  of  extremi- 
ties, syncope,  and  death.  After  death  there  are  found 
blood  extravasations  in  the  alimentary  canal  and  ecchy- 
moses  of  serous  membranes. 

Treatment  :  careful  nursing,  emollients,  also  enemas ; 
opium,  to  counteract  the  tendency  to  anaemia  of  the  brain. 

Yew  {Taxus  haccata). — When  fodder  is  scarce  cattle 
will  feed  on  this  plant.  Dr.  John^s,  in  the  '  Treasury 
of  Botany,^  says  :  "  It  appears,  from  all  accounts,  that  the 
poison  is  more  virulent  in  the  young  shoots  than  in  any 
other  part  of  the  tree,  but  that  it  exists  in  greater  or  less 
quantities,  both  in  the  leaves  and  in  the  green  bark.  The 
leaves  are  more  dangerous  in  a  half- dry  state  than 
when  fresh.''  Yew  shoots  are  too  often  carelessly  left 
about  after  cutting.  They  produce  a  powerful  sedative 
effect.  Sometimes  the  animal  is  found  dead  with  yew 
in  his  mouth.  When  seen  before  death  the  patient  is  found 
to  have  a  rapidly  sinking  pulse  and  the  ordinary  sedative 
signs.  On  post-mortem  examination,  blood  extravasations 
in  the  alimentary  canal  may  be  noted,  but  sometimes  they 
are  entirely  absent.  The  stomach  is  full,  and  generally 
contains  the  yew  shoots.  Little  can  be  done  in  such  cases, 
except  the  administration  of  stimulants  and  cathartics,  and 
clearing  out  the  stomach  by  means  of  the  stomach-pump, 
or  ruminotomy.  Why  cattle  should  be  able  to  eat  much 
green  yew  with  impunity  is  uncertain. 

Digitalis  (D.]pnr2)nrea),  foxglove,  a  well-known  British 


POISONS.  195 

plant,  grows  on  banks  exposed  to  the  sun.  When  an 
excessive  dose  of  this  special  cardiac  sedative  has  been 
administered  it  causes  irritation  of  the  alimentary  canal. 
The  symptoms  are  those  characteristic  of  a  sedative 
poison,  together  with  a  peculiarly  violent  action  of 
the  heart,  and  subsequently  diuresis.  Signs  of  irrita- 
tion of  the  alimentary  canal  are  visible  post  mortem,  and 
the  heart  is  soft  and  ecchymosed.  Agents  containing 
tannin  are  suggested  as  antidotes. 

Lead,  when  taken  into  the  system,  acts  as  a  local 
and  general  sedative.  This  metal  and  its  salts  are  highly 
important  to  us  from  a  toxicological  point  of  view.  It 
may  gain  entry  in  the  water,  since  several  of  the  com- 
pounds of  lead  are  soluble,  from  the  lead  diffused  in  a 
state  of  minute  division  over  the  pastures  near  smelting 
works  or  near  rifle  butts,  or  from  refuse  paint  brought 
with  manure  and  spread  over  fields.  These  lead  salts  are 
sweet,  so  that  cattle  readily  consume  them.  In  some 
cases  of  lead  poisoning  there  is  indigestion  with  colic,  due 
to  paralysis  of  the  stomach  in  which  food  accumulates, 
and  tympany  sets  in  ;  this  is  accompanied  by  general  signs 
of  disease,  depression,  and  a  small  pulse.  Later,  deposits  of 
lead  may  be  seen,  of  a  greyish  colour,  in  the  gums.  There 
is  paralysis  throughout  the  alimentary  canal,  paralysis  of 
the  hind  limbs  sets  in,  and  the  animal  dies  after  a  some- 
what prolonged  illness.  On  post-mortem  examination  the 
hardened  condition  of  the  intestinal  and  gastric  contents 
may  be  noted,  and  the  blackness  or  reddened  state  of 
the  mucous  membrane.  The  presence  of  lead  may  be 
shown  in  many  of  the  tissues.  Sulphuric  acid  and  the 
sulphates  of  soda  or  magnesia  and  alum  are  the  best  che- 
mical antidotes,  forming  the  insoluble  lead  sulphate. 
Cathartics  must  be  given  to  remove  the  poison.  In  other 
instances  lead  produces  the  symptoms  of  '^stomach 
staggers,^^  with  a  slow  pulse,  delirium,  and  death. 

Laburnum,  as  described  by  Dobson,  seems  to  act  as  a 
sedative  poison,  producing  paralysis  of  the  hind  limbs,  and 
an  accumulation  of  food  as  a  dense  mass  in  the  rumen. 
Besides  the  special  characters  of  their  contents  there  may 


196  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

be  noted  inflaimnation  of  the  small  intestines.  Purgatives 
sufficed  to  save  some  of  the  calves  attacked  (Dobson). 

Ieritant  Poisons. — Stimulating  agents,  when  taken 
internally,  exert  a  local  irritant  action,  and  thus  give  rise 
to  enteritis  or  gastro-enteritis,  which  do  not  in  any  essen- 
tial respect  differ  from  these  diseases  when  they  arise  from 
other  causes — sometimes  the  systemic  action  of  the  agent 
is  apparent  after  its  absorption.  We  have  seen  that  some 
neurotics  exert  a  local  irritant  action,  but  all  of  them  cause 
death  by  their  effects  while  acting  from  the  blood. 

Oxalic  acid,  lime,  and  ammonia,  act  as  irritant  poisons. 
Among  vegetable  substances  which  thus  act  are  Anemone 
Pulsatilla,  Mercurialis  annua  (which  causes  haBmaturia), 
Mercurialis  perenniSj  certain  Ranunculi,  Bryony,  Rhododen- 
dron, and  Veratrum  album.  Helleborus  niger  and  H.  foetidus 
also  act  similarly ;  the  root  of  the  former  is  sometimes  used 
for  increasing  the  irritant  action  of  setons.  It  is  inserted 
as  a  peg  into  the  subcutaneous  areolar  tissue,  and  when  the 
fresh  root  is  used  may  give  rise  to  most  acute  inflamma- 
tion. The  most  active  general  and  local  antiphlogistic 
measures  are  necessary  to  save  the  animal.  Charlock 
(wild  mustard)  sometimes  acts  as  a  simple  irritant  when 
taken  in  with  the  food.  Sometimes  the  various  kinds  of 
cake  contain  mustard-seeds,  and  act  as  irritants.  The 
taste  and  odour  is  sufficient  to  enable  us  to  determine 
whether  or  no  this  is  the  case  with  any  particular  specimen 
of  cake. 

Cicuta  virosa  (the  water  hemlock),  Mthusa  cynapium 
(the  fool^s  parsley),  and  CEiianthe  crocata  (the  water  drop- 
wort),  are  poisonous  umbellifers,  which  exert  a  narcotico- 
irritant  action. 

Astringent  Poisons  are  generally  irritant  in  their  effects. 
They  cause  symptoms  such  as  we  shall  enumerate  under 
the  heading  "  Grastro  -  enteritis,^'  Pantas  or  Moor -ill. 
Acorns,  fern,  and  oak  shoots  are  the  principal  of  these 
agents. 

Corrosive  Poisons,  by  their  chemical  action,  cause  dis- 
organisation of  the  parts  with  which  they  come  in  contact, 
and  thus,  in  treating  of  them,  we  have  to  deal  with  their 


POISONS.  197 

irritant  effects^  and  also  with  ill  consequences  result- 
ing from  sloughing  of  the  corroded  tissues,  the  prin- 
cipal being  actual  loss  of  useful  substance,  perforations, 
and  strictures.  Thus,  corrosives  are  much  more  formid- 
able than  simple  irritants.  This  obtains  with  the  sym- 
ptoms as  well  as  with  the  effects.  Enormous  doses 
generally  cause  immediate  collapse. 

Corrosive  Sublimate  is  the  best  representative  of  this 
class.  It  is  administered  maliciously  or  by  mistake  for 
calomel.  It  causes  acute  gastro- enteritis  and  death  when 
given  in  doses  of  two  drachms.  It  causes  an  exhausting 
cough  in  ruminants  (Gamgee).  Albuminous  materials  are 
the  best  antidotes.  Copper,  zinc,  silver,  and  iron  salts 
are  corrosive  poisons.  When  given  in  large  enough  doses 
concentrated  alkaline  solutions  especially  disorganise  the 
epithelial  layers  of  the  membrane  with  which  they  come  in 
contact.  Mineral  acids  act  as  corrosives,  nitric  turns  the 
parts  with  which  it  comes  in  contact  yellow,  sulphuric, 
renders  them  black,  and  hydrochloric  white.  Dilute  alkaline 
solutions  and  demulcents  should  be  given  in  these  cases. 

Eliminative  Poisons  enter  the  blood  and  are  removed 
thence  by  the  excretory  organs,  which  they  over-irritate  in 
the  act  of  passage,  and  so  inflame.  Thus,  the  symptoms 
vary  much  with  each  agent,  and  we  have  more  time  for 
treatment.  The  poison,  once  it  enters  the  blood,  is  singu- 
larly inaccessible. 

Aloes,  castor-oil  beans,  euphorbium,  and  gamboge  act 
in  this  way  on  the  intestines. 

Ai^senic  is  obtained  by  malicious  administration,  over- 
dose, or  accidental  presence  in  cakes  and  other  articles  of 
food.  It  is  eliminated  by  the  stomachic  and  intestinal 
glands,  of  which  it  causes  very  extensive  inflammation. 
The  hydrated  peroxide  of  iron  is  recommended  as  an 
antidote.      The  tests  are  numerous  and  very  definite. 

Antimony,  besides  its  influence  on  numerous  glands  of 
the  body,  is  a  sedative.  ^ 

Calomel  affects  especially  the  salivary  glands  and  liver. 
It  must  be  opposed  by  albumen  and  astringents. 

Nitrate  of  Potash  may  be  detected  in  the  urine  by  the 


198  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

fact  that  blotting-paper  dipped  into  that  fluid  and  dried 
becomes  '^*' touch  paper/' 

A  peculiar  form  of  arsenical  poisoning  is  known  as  the 
CorPER-SMOKE  Disease.  It  is  supposed  to  be  due  to  finely 
divided  arsenic  spread  by  the  copper- smelter's  furnace. 
*'  Young  animals  are  most  susceptible  of  this  influence ; 
and  among  the  most  marked  effects  are  a  disposition  to 
ophthalmia,  which  in  general  quickly  terminates  in  cata- 
ract, enlargement  of  the  knee-  and  hock-joints,  and 
periosteal  exostosis  of  the  bones  of  the  extremities.  The 
first  indications  of  animals  being  thus  affected  are  dul- 
ness  and  refusal  of  food.  On  examination  the  teeth  will 
be  found  incrusted  with  a  bluish  concretion,  the  gums 
humid  and  red,  and  the  saliva  secreted  in  increased 
quantities,  symptoms  analogous  to  ptyalism  ''  (Morton). 

Post-mortem. — It  is  observed  that  the  bones  are  friable, 
and  have  a  peculiar  reddish-brown  colour.  Such  are  the 
most  frequent  poisons  of  the  ox. 

Addendum  2. — Parasites  and  Parasitismus. 

Among  the  special  causes  of  the  various  diseases  of 
the  higher  animals  those  which  are  themselves  distinct 
organisms,  whether  of  an  animal  or  vegetable  nature, 
demand  special  notice,  whether  it  be  on  account  of  their 
clinical  importance  or  of  the  peculiar  features  of  their 
life-histories. 

That  one  animal  should  live  inside  another  was  at  first 
thought  to  be  such  a  very  strange  matter  that  it  was 
attributed  to  evil  agencies  generating  such  beings  de  novo, 
and  it  was  then,  and  is  sometimes  even  now,  thought  that 
the  presence  of  parasitic  organisms  in  the  body  consti- 
tutes disease.  But  so  far  from  this  being  so,  we  now 
know  that  large  groups  of  animals  have  their  typical 
habitat  within  other  beings,  and  some  observers  have  even 
gone  so  far  as  to  attribute  to  the  gastric  infusoria  of  her- 
bivora  (see  Fig.  27),  a  decidedly  beneficial  effect  in  the 
elaboration  of  chyme.  Far-fetched  as  this  idea  is,  we  can 
well  believe,  that  under  certain  circumstances  animals  and 


PAEASITES    AND    PAEASITISMUS.  199 

plants  may  be  beneficial  to  the  organisms  in  whicb  they 
live.  On  the  other  hand,  in  parasites  we  often  note  that 
nature  finds  a  means  of  removing  a  surplus  animal  popula- 
tion. Thus,  in  some  years,  sheep,  cattle,  and  horses,  fall 
victims  to  the  "  worms  '^  in  large  numbers,  as  seen  in  the 
diseases  rot,  husk,  &c.  The  obtaining  of  parasites  also 
depends  on  the  nature  of  the  diet;  vegetable  food  cannot 
prove  the  direct  bearer  of  the  majority  of  parasites,  but 
many  can  be  taken  in  with  meat. 

It  must  be  distinctly  understood  that  it  is  quite  the 
exception  for  a  few  parasites  to  cause  serious  mischief, 
since  they  generally  give  rise  to  disorders  only  when  they 
are  present. in  large  numbers.  The  manner  in  which  these 
few  act  is  either  by  producing  functional  nervous  disease  or 
destroying  the  walls  of  the  organ  in  which  they  are  situated. 
These  actions  are  rarely,  if  ever,  seen  in  the  ox.  Some 
parasites  do  not  live  upon  the  structures  of  the  host,  but 
simply  inside  or  upon  other  animals  not  being  dependent 
directly  upon  them  for  nutriment.  Such  are  fellow- 
hoarders  J  a  barnacle  on  a  whale  is  an  example  of  this 
relationship.  From  this  the  interests  of  the  two  indi- 
viduals tend  more  and  more  to  clash.  The  fluke  resides 
in  the  liver,  and  consumes  the  bile  which  would  be  useful 
to  its  host ;  other  forms  prey  on  mucus,  some  on  the 
contents  of  the  alimentary  canal,  and  some,  finally,  are 
blood-suckers,  and  thus  prove  to  the  highest  degree 
exhausting. 

Though  these  parasites  are  intimately  associated  with 
the  pathological  conditions  to  which  they  give  rise,  and 
often  dependent  on  them  at  certain  phases  of  their  life, 
the  processes  prove  more  or  less  troublesome  to  the  host ; 
and  if  the  invaders-  have  been  numerous  the  conditions  to 
which,  by  their  combined  efforts,  they  give  rise  may  lead 
to  severe  disorder  and  even  death.  Thus,  the  ill  effects 
of  parasitic  organisms  are,  in  many  cases,  directly  related 
to  the  number  of  them  present. 

Yet  it  must  be  remarked  that  except  where  essential  to 
tlie  well-being  of  the  parasite,  the  disorder  which  it 
causes  is  not  nearly  so  severe  as  that  which  would  result 


200 


BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

a  5  * 


^^oU  dd. 


V^VERUCRUKCUta, 


Fig.  27. — Infusoria  from  the  alimentary  canal  of  the  horse,  similar  to  those 
which  have  been  found  in  the  contents  of  the  rumen  of  the  ox.  (From 
Culin,  *  Physiologic  des  animaux  domestiques.') 

from  a  portion  of  dead  material  of  similar  size  and  form.  The 
living  state  seems  to  produce  an  absence  or  imperfection 
of  the  tendency  which  is  observable  in  the  system  of  the 
ox  to  throw  off  anything  which  does  not  belong  to  it,  as 
foreign  matter.  Since  the  ill  effects  of  parasites  are  so 
often  proportional  to  the  number  of  worms  present,  we 
find  that  when  the  climatic  conditions  of  any  season  have 
been  especially  favorable  to  their  growth  and  develop- 
ment epizootic  outbreaks  of  parasitic  disorders  are  noted. 


PARASITES    AND    PARASITISMUS.  '         201 

and  this  is  most  marked  after  a  warm  wet  season  with 
frequent  floods ;  and  those  animals  pastured  on  lowland 
soil  are  most  liable  to  become  affected.  These  parasitic 
living  beings^  endowed  with  a  power  of  motion,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  of  selection  of  their  special  abodes,  in  their 
migrations  through  the  system  cause  irritation,  and  this 
occurs  as  well  with  the  movements  of  the  larval  as  of  the 
mature  forms.  The  former  sometimes  bore  through  the 
tissues  until  they  come  to  a  desirable  place  to  stay  at,  the 
latter  generally  limit  their  movements  to  those  which 
suffice  to  enable  them  to  traverse  the  canal  or  organ  in 
which  they  are  found.  The  irritation  causes  slow  local 
changes,  condensations,  sometimes  abscesses,  and  so  on. 
And  it  often  gives  rise  to  a  debilitated  state  of  the  con- 
stitution which  kills  animals,  either  being  induced  by 
some  impediment  to  function,  by  drain  on  the  constitu- 
tion, or  by  excess  of  nervous  irritation. 

Thus  it  is  that  debility  (and  constitutional  deficiency  of 
energy,  as  seen  in  young  or  old  animals)  is  a  marked 
phenomenon  in  disease  of  a  parasitic  nature;  it  supple- 
ments that  caused  by  the  parasites,  and  the  two  together 
suffice  for  the  production  of  death,  which  would  not  have 
resulted  from  either  of  them  operating  by  itself.  In  this 
sense  we  must  take  the  statement  that  debility  is  a  cause 
of  parasitismus,  and  not  infer  that  a  weak  state  of  the 
patient  will  tend  to  the  generation  of  parasites  de  novo. 
According  as  parasites  live  in  or  upon  their  hearers  or 
hosts,  as  the  affected  animals  are  termed,  they  are 
classified  as  Entozoa  and  Ectozoa.  Whereas  the  former 
are  Anumloida,  such  as  tapeworms,  fluke-worms,  and 
round  worms,  the  latter  are  generally  allied  to  spiders, 
being  truly  Annulose ;  insecta,  or  arachnida.  There  are, 
of  course,  exceptions  to  this  rule ;  thus,  the  larval  form  of 
the  insect  oestrus,  and  the  spider-like  pentastoma,  are 
found  internally  in  the  horse  and  dog  respectively,  but  in 
the  ox  the  oestrus  is  an  external  parasite,  and  the  penta- 
stoma in  its  larval  form  only  is  harboured  by  this  animal. 

The  phases  of  development  of  the  various  parasites  are 
of  the  highest  interest  and  practical  importance.     Thus, 


202  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

the  Cystic,  or  larval  taenise,  are  found  in  animals  other 
than  the  bearer  of  the  adult  tapeworm,  and  some  con- 
nection between  the  hosts  of  larval  and  adult  forms  must 
occur  or  the  race  will  die  out. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  may  seem  astonishing 
that  this  event  has  not  happened  long  ago,  but  we  must 
recollect  that  each  of  the  usually  numerous  segments  of 
a  tapeworm  contains  an  enormous  number  of  eggs ;  that 
these  eggs  can  remain  exposed  to  weather  and  to  other 
such  influences  for  a  long  time  without  injury ;  that  the 
hydatids  produced  are  sometimes  many-headed,  each  head 
being  capable  of  becoming  a  distinct  individual;  that,  in 
other  cases,  the  hydatids  are  capable  of  producing  a 
number  of  secondary  cysts  within  themselves. 

To  prevent  excessive  action  of  these  favorable  influences 
many  of  the  ova  are  lost ;  the  embryo  does  not  always  suc- 
ceed in  obtaining  a  bearer.  Many  of  the  bearers  of  hy- 
datids are  not  sufficiently  infested  to  die,  and  are  not  killed 
and  eaten  sufficiently  soon  for  the  parasite,  which,  there- 
fore, undergoes  calcification  after  dying.  The  hydatids 
are  not  always  sufficiently  fortunate  to  obtain  a  nidus  for 
development  into  the  adult.  Thus,  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances, the  chances  of  invasion  by  TaBuise  are  about 
even.  When  intermediary  bearers  are  prevalent,  when 
conditions  are  favorable  to  development  of  the  embryos, 
and  under  other  special  circumstances,  a  severe  outbreak 
of  parasitismus  occurs.  If  we  can  break  through  the  chain 
of  development  at  any  one  link  we  shall  arrest  parasitic 
invasion,  and  the  enemy,  being  thus  cut  off  from  rein- 
forcements, will  be  defeated  in  its  attempts  to  produce 
disease.  Thus,  in  the  case  of  Taenias,  communication  of 
dogs  with  cattle,  and  the  former  running  over  pastures 
is  to  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible.  All  parasites 
passed,  and  all  livers  and  lungs  containing  hydatids 
should  be  destroyed,  and  not  given  to  dogs  or  used  as 
manure.  Thus,  we  may  hope  to  succeed  in  eradicating 
tapeworm.  Flukes  have  a  free  stage  of  existence  when, 
as  cercarians,  they  frequent  the  drinking-water,  and  thus 
gain  entry  into  the  alimentary  passages  of  the  higher  ani- 


PARASITES    AND    PARASITISMUS.  203 

mals.  At  one  stage  they  inhabit  the  tissues  of  mollus- 
cous animals.  Their  ova  are  numerous^  the  developmental 
forms  multiply  by  budding,  and  numbers  simultaneously 
gain  entry  to  the  system.  The  contingencies  of  the  lives 
of  these  parasites  are  less  numerous  than  those  of  Taeniae. 
Flukes,  therefore,  are  often  most  prejudicial.  The  best 
means  to  counteract  them  are  to  endeavour  to  remove  ani- 
mals fitted  to  act  as  bearers  from  the  grounds  in  which 
fluke  larvae  abound,  and  to  ensure  a  pure  water  supply. 
Another  means  is  to  check  the  passage  of  mollusca  across 
pastures,  either  by  a  well-limed  border  against  every  por- 
tion of  marshy  land  and  every  stagnant  ditch,  or  by  salt- 
ing the  pastures.  Our  evidences  as  to  the  action  of  anti- 
parasitics is  not  very  good.  We  know  of  some  Taeniafuges 
and  some  Tseniacides,  but  flukes  and  certain  round  worms 
are  very  inaccessible,  and  we  can  only  back  up  the  system 
against  their  attacks  by  tonics.  Parasitism  degrades ; 
animals  not  entirely  dependent  on  their  own  resources 
lose  many  organs  essential  to  independent  life,  therefore 
much  difficulty  has  been  found  in  placing  parasites  in  their 
proper  position  in  the  animal  kingdom.  The  Nematodes 
and  Acanthocephala  puzzle  even  Huxley.  Thus,  some  of 
these  comparatively  high  organisms  respire  simply  by 
means  of  the  general  surface  of  the  body,  like  the  Amoeba 
and  other  Protozoa.  In  some  also,  the  general  surface  takes 
in  nutritive  matter.  There  is  evidence  to  show  that  in 
the  present  day  some  forms  are  becoming  parasitic  which 
have  hitherto  been  living  in  independence,  and  perhaps  the 
reverse  also  holds.  The  phenomenon  of  partial  parasitism 
is  shown  when  an  animal  only  lives  as  a  parasite  through 
one  or  more  of  its  developmental  phases,  in  the  others  being 
free  and  independent.  This  is  a  lazy  method  of  life  adopted 
by  gad-flies  and  the  like,  which  feed  remarkably  when  in 
the  larval  stage,  at  the  expense  of  their  animal  hosts,  remain 
for  a  time  in  the  chrysalis  stage,  and  then  spend  a  brief  but 
exciting  existence  in  the  acts  of  reproduction  and  provision 
for  the  preservation  of  their  own  race,  to  the  discomfort  of 
that  of  far  higher  beings.  We  may  now  draw  up  a  short 
classificatory  notice  in  a  tabular  form  of  bovine  parasites. 


204 


BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 


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PARASITES    AND    PARASITISMUS. 


205 


206  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

Yegetable  Parasitic  Organisms  are  either  fungi  or  closely 
allied  to  them,  consequently  they  are  not,  as  are  our  ordi- 
nary plants,  dependent  on  the  surrounding  air  for  much  nu- 
triment, but  they  are  adapted  for  the  appropriation  of  all 
their  nutritive  material  from  the  soil  in  which  they  are  grow- 
ing. When  this  is  rich  they  grow  with  the  greatest  rapidity 
and  luxuriance,  thus  the  ringworm  plant  attains  a  high  de- 
velopment on  the  ox.  They  consist  of  tubes  and  spores  pro- 
duced by  them.  The  former  appropriate  the  nutritive 
material,  the  latter  become  free,  and,  being  very  minute, 
can  be  conveyed  by  contagion,  immediate  or  mediate,  or 
wafted  through  the  air.  They  are  also  endowed  with  high 
resisting  power.  The  larger  and  more  conspicuous  of  these 
fungi  grow  on  the  surface  of  the  body  of  the  host,  causing 
disorders  due  to  irritation,  varying  in  intensity  with  the 
activity  of  growth  of  the  cause.  Those  more  minute  and 
infinitely  more  important  fungi,  which  develop  internally, 
acting  as  Entophyta,  are  known  under  the  name  Bacteria. 
We  have  already  dealt  with  them  at  length  in  our  descrip- 
tion of  "  Blood  diseases.^^  We  are  aware  of  some  agents 
which  eradicate  those  organisms  which  flourish  on  the 
surface ;  such  have  been  suggested  for  the  treatment  of 
ringworm.  Anti-bacterian  agents  are  by  no  means  so 
well  known.  Our  main  efforts  in  the  management  of 
vegetable,  as  of  animal  parasites,  must  be  directed  to 
prevention  of  contagion  and  development,  and  to  rendering 
the  system  an  unsuitable  soil,  or  sufficiently  strong  to 
resist  their  attack  and  throw  them  off. 

It  will  be  remarked  how  gradual  the  transition  is  from 
parasitic  disorders  to  those  specific  blood  affections  which 
have  not  been  proved  to  be  parasitic.  Eheumatism  and 
some  other  diseases  serve  to  connect  these  latter  with 
ordinary  diseases,  which,  in  themselves,  are  simply  modi- 
fications of  physiological  conditions.  Physiological  action 
of  parts  depends  upon  the  vitality  of  cells,  and  these  are 
in  their  most  generalised  forms  exactly  similar  to  low 
non-parasitic  organisms,  which  in  their  turn  do  not  differ 
essentially  from  parasites.  Thus,  pathology,  physiology, 
and  biology  form  a  grand  cycle. 


THE   CIRCULATORY   SYSTEM. 


207 


CHAPTER  III. 


-DISEASES  OF  THE  CIECULATOEY 
SYSTEM. 


Section  1. — Or  the  Heart. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  tbe  heart  of  the  ox  is 
small  as  compared  with  that  of  the  horse_,  and  averages 
about  34  to  4i  lbs.  in  weight.  It  is  estimated  by  Colin 
^^  ih  ^^  2B3  parts  of  the  weight  of  the  body,  that  of  the 


Fig.  32. — Thoracic  contents,  as  seen  from  the  left  side.     (Simonds.) 

horse  being  ~  to  y'y.  The  apex  is  very  pointed,  and 
there  are  three  ventricular  furrows.  There  is  a  very  stout 
muscular  moderator  band  in  the  right  ventricle,  below 
which  is  a  large  tendinous  band.  In  consequence  of  the 
comparative  shortness  of  the  chest  in  the  ox,  the  peri- 
cardium extends  nearly  to  the  antero-inferior  part  of  the 


208 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


diaphragm.      The  heart,  therefore,  at  its  base  corresponds 
to   the  second  and  sixth  ribs   and   those  which   intervene 


Fig.  33. — The  heart,  with  its  right  cavities  opened,  part  of  the  pericardium 
in  position,  and  the  large  vessels  at  its  base.     (Siinonds.) 

between  them.  The  thorax  of  the  ox  being  wide  and  the 
pulmonary  mass  large,  the  heart  is  more  separated  from 
the  thoracic  walls,  and  less  exposed  than  in  the  horse. 
Its  beat  may  be  best  felt  at  the  fifth  intercostal  space  at 
about  the  level  of  the  point  of  the  elbow,  at  the  meeting 
of  the  ribs  with  the  sterno- costal  cartilage,  but  it  is  not 
so  clear  and  distinct  as  is  that  of  the  horse.  For  satis- 
factory auscultation  of  this  organ  the  left  fore  limb 
requires  to  be  drawn  forwards  and  the  ear  applied  as 
closely  as  possible  behind  the  muscular  mass  of  the 
shoulder.  The  heart  of  the  ox  very  frequently  has  a 
large    amount    of    fat    deposited    in    its    furrows.      Such 


THE    CIRCULATORY    SYSTEM.  209 

deposits  have  been  erroneously  described  as  fatty  degenera- 
tion. They  are  generally  seen,  to  a  more  or  less  marked 
degree,  in  prize  beasts,  and  must  be  considered  normal,  for 
in  no  case  has  it  been  proved  that  they  interfere  with  the 
heart's  action. 

Os  cordis  is  the  name  applied  to  a  bony  nodule,  generally 
somewhat  triangular  in  form  and  flattened  on  each  side, 
which  constitutes  a  basis  for  attachment  of  the  muscular 
fibres  of  the  heart,  and  is  situated  at  the  base  of  the 
ventricles  in  connection  with  the  aortic  opening.  It  is  an 
ossification  of  the  fibrous  ring  of  the  heart,  such  as  is 
seen  in  the  horse  in  exceptional  cases.  Sometimes  this 
bone  consists  of  two  parts,  and  frequently  it  involves  the 
whole  aortic  ring. 

Diseases  of  the  Heart  are  primarily  divided  into 
functional  and  organic.  In  the  former  we  have  not  yet 
been  able  to  trace  the  lesions  upon  which  the  disorder 
depends.  Such  probably  exist  in  the  complex  cardiac 
nervous  mechanism.  Dr.  Pettigrew  has  especially  investi- 
gated this  mechanism  in  the  ox  (see  his  '  Physiology  of  the 
Circulation  in  Plants,  in  the  Lower  Animals,  and  in  Man '). 
When  we  consider  that  the  pneumogastric  nerve,  pulmonary 
plexus,  and  the  medulla  oblongata,  certainly  are  sources  of 
nervous  supply  to  the  heart,  we  shall  be  inclined  to 
attribute  '^ functional "  disease  of  the  heart  to  our  present 
want  of  knowledge  of  structural  changes  in  the  case 
rather  than  to  absence  of  disorder  of  so  complex  a  me- 
chanism. 

Palpitation  is  the  form  which  this  nervous  disorder 
generally  assumes,  but  it  is  rare  in  the  ox,  this  animal  not 
as  a  rule  being  subjected  to  extremes  of  exertion,  nor  to 
high  strains  upon  the  nervous  system.  Dyspepsia  causes 
this  disorder  probably  by  reflex  inhibition  through  the 
vagus,  while  in  blood  poisoning  the  impurities  in  the  blood 
probably  do  so  by  acting  directly  upon  the  cardiac  ganglia 
and  the  muscular  fibres  of  the  heart ;  perhaps,  too,  there  is 
perverted  stimulation  of  the  inner  surface  of  the  heart,  as 
in  anaemic  palpitation,  when  venous  murmurs  are  marked 
and    the    impoverished   blood    tends    to   clot  around  the 

14 


210 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


prominences  and  cords  inside  the  cavities.  The  prin- 
cipal symptoms  are  powerful  and  jerky  action  of  the 
heart,  frequent  and  small  pulse,  anxiety,  and  loss  of  ap- 
petite. 

Organic  Diseases  : — Inflammation  op  the  Heart — Car- 
ditis— Myocarditis. — Is  not  of  frequent  occurrence,  and  it 
is  doubtful  whether  it  is  ever  present  as  a  distinct  disease, 
being  generally  a  complication  of  pericarditis.  Traumatic 
carditis  has  been  recorded,  and  sometimes  it  is  found  that 
penetration  of  the  heart  by  a  foreign  body  leads  to 
instant  death.  Circumscribed  inflammations  occasionally 
affect  this  organ,  leading  to  the  formation  of  small  abscesses 
in  its  walls.  The  principal  symptoms  are  extreme  quick- 
ness of  the  pulse,  considerable  elevation  of  internal  tem- 
perature, increased  respirations,  coldness  of  the  extremities, 
and  rapid  death.  An  instance  of  this  disease  is  men- 
tioned by  Armatage.  If  a  case  of  this  nature  is  diagnosed 
it  may  be  treated  in  the  same  way  as  pericarditis  in  the 
early  stage.  Formation  of  abscesses  in  the  walls  of  the 
heart  may  result  from  certain  forms  of  blood  poisoning. 

Hypertrophy  oe  the  Heart  may  be  simple  when  the 
walls  are  thickened,  but  the  cavities  normal  in  size; 
excentric  when  the  heart  and  its  cavities  are  proportion- 
ately dilated;  concentric  when  the  walls  of  the  organ  are 
thickened  at  the  expense  of  the  cavities,  which  are,  there- 
fore, small.  Simple  hypertrophy  may  be  seen  in  some 
working  oxen,  and  is  not  to  be  considered  disease  when  it 
clearly  is  an  attempt  of  nature  to  perform  the  duties 
necessitated  by  the  special  labour  of  the  animal.  It  must 
be  remembered,  however,  that  there  should  be  a  due  uni- 
formity between  this  increase  and  that  of  other  parts  of 
the  body.  The  other  forms  ensue  generally  from  impedi- 
ment to  escape  of  blood  from  the  heart,  either  as  a  result 
of  disease  affecting  the  arterial  valves,  or  of  pressure  upon 
or  disease  of  the  large  arteries,  while  hypertrophy  of  the 
right  side  may  accompany  chronic  lung  disease.  Ex- 
cessive force  of  the  hearths  contraction,  with  sometimes  a 
laboured  effort  and  irregularities  of  the  pulse,  indicate 
these   conditions,   which,    however,   are   very    rare.      The 


THE    CIRCULATORY    SYSTEM.  211 

animal  must  be  kept  as  quiet  as  possible^  and  fed  for  the 
butcber. 

Atrophy  op  the  Heart,  usually  termed  fatty  degenera- 
tion, must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the  above- 
mentioned  deposition  of  fat  normally  in  the  furrows.  Here 
the  muscular  fibres  waste,  and  their  protoplasm  is  trans- 
formed into  fat.  It  is  a  disease  of  old  age,  and  as  such 
is  seldom,  if  ever,  seen  in  the  ox.  To  the  naked  eye  the 
organ  is  pale,  with  yellowish  patches ;  it  feels  soft  and 
flabby,  and  breaks  with  a  granular  fracture ;  often  the 
visceral  pericardium  is  depressed,  here  and  there,  through 
diminution  in  size  of  the  structure  internal  to  it.  Car- 
ditis, pericarditis,  or  senile  degeneration  of  protoplasm, 
are  causes  of  this  condition,  which  predisposes  to  rupture 
of  the  heart. 

A  case  of  Cretaceous  Degeneration  is  recorded  in  the 
'Veterinarian,'  vol.  xxxv,  p.  800  (1862).  The  pericar- 
dium and  brain  were  also  affected  in  this  instance. 
Yellow  calcareous  spots  were  diffused  through  the  heart- 
substance. 

Under  the  heading  '^Atrophy''  must  be  included  those 
cases  in  which  the  walls  of  the  heart  are  thin,  while  the 
cavities  are  dilated.  This  condition  known  as  'pouched 
heart  is  frequent  in  the  ox  as  in  many  other  animals. 
A  paper  on  this  subject  is  given  in  the  '  Veterinarian,' 
vol.  XXV,  pp.  60  and  105  (1852).^  On  examination  of 
the  organ  after  death  the  flabby  clay- coloured  condition 
of  its  walls,  which  retain  the  impression  of  the  finger,  is 
evident. 

Endocarditis,  like  inflammation  of  other  serous  mem- 
branes, leads  to  thickening  and  roughness  of  the  surface ; 
these  conditions  are  unfavorable  to  the  passage  of  the 
blood,  which  deposits  coagula  on  the  diseased  parts.  The 
roughness  of  the  membrane  is  due  to  cell  proliferation  of 
its  substance,  whereby  granulations  are  produced,  which 

^  The  author  mentions  this  as  a  dangerous  and  incurable  disease,  incidental 
to  cows  and  oxen  in  fattening ;  present  in  seven  out  of  every  ten  animals 
unduly  fattened ;  generally  affecting  the  right  side  of  the  heart,  commencing 
at  the  conus  arteriosus  j  associated  with  congestion  of  the  lungs ;  sometimes 
due  to  over-driving. 


212  BOVINE  PATHOLOGY. 

sometimes  undergo  calcareous  and  fatty  degeneration. 
The  arterial  valves,  but  much  more  frequently  the  auriculo- 
ventricular,  are  the  most  important  seat  of  deposit.  Some- 
times ulceration  of  the  valves  occurs,  and  they  are  per- 
forated. These  changes  almost  always  result  from 
rheumatic  disorder.  Sometimes  post  mortem  no  deposi- 
tions are  found,  simply  reddening  of  the  lining  membrane 
of  the  heart,  and  sometimes  ecchymosis. 

Symptoms. — With  the  general  symptoms  of  disorder 
and  acute  febrile  disturbance  are  associated  the  pecu- 
liar rushing  sound  known  as  the  ^^  bellows  murmur,^^ 
which  varies  according  to  the  parts  affected.  "A  bel- 
lows murmur  with  the  first  sound  indicates  mitral  in- 
sufficiency, stricture  of  the  aortic  orifice,  disease  of  the 
aortic  valves,  or  deposits  on  the  ventricular  surface  of 
the  mitral  valves;  or  it  may  depend  upon  an  altered 
condition  of  the  blood  itself,  as  in  anaemia,  in  which 
case  it  resembles  a  churning  sound,  heard  also  in  the 
large  arteries  and  veins.  A  bellows  murmur  with  the 
second  sound  indicates  aortic  insufficiency,  roughened 
auricular  surface  of  the  mitral  valves,  or  mitral  obstruc- 
tion'^  (Williams) .  The  pulse  is  intermittent  and  irregular, 
"  a  rapid  but  violent  tremor,'^  and  does  not  correspond  to 
the  cardiac  impulse.  The  venous  pulse  is  present.  Some- 
times endocardial  growths  develop  gradually,  and  do  not 
materially  affect  the  patient,  until  sudden  death  occurs, 
and  the  slaughter-house  furnishes  us  with  specimens  from 
animals  to  all  appearance  in  a  good  state  of  general  health. 

Treatment. — In  a  chronic  case  the  animal  should  be 
fattened  for  the  butcher,  but  in  an  acute  inflammatory 
attack  such  measures  may  be  adopted  as  are  suggested  for 
pericarditis.  External  stimulation,  say  some  authorities, 
should  never  amount  to  vesication,  for  the  inflammation 
thus  excited  would  tend  to  increase  the  already  excessive 
amount  of  fibrin  in  the  blood ;  but  it  must  be  remembered 
that  inflammatory  blood  coagulates  more  slowly  than 
healthy.  Salines,  especially  such  as  are  useful  in  rheu- 
matism, should  be  administered.  Aconite  may  be  used  to 
counteract  the  excessive  sympathetic  fever. 


THE    CIRCULATORY    SYSTEM.  213 

Sequelm. — Portions  of  the  valvular  clots  separating  from 
tlieir  attachments  may  pass  into  the  general  blood  stream, 
and,  becoming  fixed  in  the  smaller  vessels,  give  rise  to 
embolic  disease.      Pneumonia  may  thus  result. 

Prognosis  of  this  serious  disorder  can  seldom  prove 
favorable.  In  acute  cases  death  may  occur  at  any  moment. 
In  chronic  cases  recovery  cannot  be  expected.  Often, 
however,  where  the  inflammation  is  circumscribed,  endo- 
cardial growths  and  fibrinous  deposits  result  in  large 
''  cardiac  polypi, ''  which  seem  sometimes  to  completely 
block  up  the  cavity. 

Pericarditis. — Inflammation  of  the  pericardium  seldom 
exists  as  a  disease  per  se,  being  a  complication  of  rheu- 
matism and  other  blood  diseases,  or  the  result  of  penetra- 
tion of  the  membrane  by  a  foreign  body  which  has  been 
swallowed,  and  found  its  way  from  the  reticulum.  Again, 
in  pleuritis  and  pleuro-pneumonia,  this  membrane  seldom 
escapes  invasion  by  the  disease.  The  traumatic  form  is 
rather  frequent.  The  foreign  body  which  gives  rise  to  it 
is  generally  a  knitting-needle,  hair-pin,  or  nail,  which  has 
accidentally  gained  entry  into  the  stomach  with  the  food, 
or  been  ingested  by  the  animal  under  the  influence  of 
depraved  appetite.  Why  such  bodies  pass  into  the  reti- 
culum in  particular  it  is  difficult  to  say,  but  in  almost 
every  case  the  foreign  body  has  started  from  this  viscus. 
Probably  it  is  only  those  which  start  from  here  which  give 
rise  to  appreciable  mischief,  or  these  foreign  bodies  may 
be  brought  by  the  rumen  to  the  oesophageal  groove  for 
regurgitation,  and  on  being  rejected  they  fall  into  the 
reticulum.  Pressure  of  the  diaphragm  leads  the  sharp 
body  to  puncture  its  structure  after  penetrating  the  wall 
of  the  stomach,  and  thus  to  enter  the  pericardial  sac 
(we  have  a  case  on  record  in  which  it  penetrated  the 
pleura,  and  escaped  by  abscess  in  an  intercostal  space), 
which  is  just  anteriorly  placed  to  the  reticulum,  separated 
from  it  only  by  the  diaphragm.  Perhaps  the  contractions 
of  the  heart  exert  a  suction  influence.  This  organ  becomes 
penetrated,  and  thus  the  body  enters  generally,  it  seems, 
the  left  auricle.     Gamgee  mentions  an  interesting  case  by 


214  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY, 

M.  Camoin,  in  which  a  large  thorn  thus  entered  the  heart, 
and  became  jBxed  by  the  chordae  tendinae. 

Symptoms. — Sometimes  after  ingestion  of  the  body,  the 
animal  remains  apparently  in  full  health.  Then  signs  of 
indigestion  may  be  present  as  indications  of  abdominal  pain, 
tympany,  and  loss  of  appetite.  Later,  and  especially,  as 
Williams  has  shown,  after  efforts  in  parturition,  the  animal 
manifests  signs  of  general  disorder  and  acute  febrile  dis- 
turbance. Also  the  pulse  is  found  to  be  small,  frequent, 
irregular,  and  intermittent,  with  a  quick  and  irritable 
beat.  Respirations  short,  sometimes  slow,  in  other  cases 
frequent,  abdominal,  and  with  a  double  expiratory  effort ; 
cough  may  be  present. 

The  internal  temperature  is  low,  and  the  blood  being 
imperfectly  diffused  through  the  system,  the  muzzle  is 
dry  and  cold,  the  limbs  are  cold,  the  mucous  membranes 
are  pale,  and  rigors  as  well  as  superficial  muscular  twitch - 
ings  (clonic  spasms  about  the  neck  and  pectoral  region) 
may  be  observed ;  there  is  general  stiffness  and  oede- 
matous  swellings  occur  in  various  parts  of  the  body,  as 
under  the  belly  and  in  the  dewlap.  The  action  of  the 
heart  is  irregular,  sometimes  sharp,  at  others  extremely 
quick  and  scarcely  perceptible.  The  larger  veins  are  dis- 
tended with  blood  and  the  venous  pulse  is  generally 
present.  The  patient  usually  suffers  a  considerable  amount 
of  pain,  and  sometimes  lies  preferably  on  the  right  side, 
grinding  the  teeth,  moaning,  and  looking  back  anxiously 
every  now  and  then  towards  the  seat  of  the  heart ;  pressure 
over  the  cardiac  region  causes  a  groan.  Tympany  is  some- 
times present,  and  there  are  gaseous  eructations.  Auscul- 
tation detects  a  friction  sound,  which  differs  from  that  of 
pleurisy  in  coinciding  with  the  hearths  movements  ;  also 
a  rushing  or  gurgling  sound,  which  M.  Boizy,  as  quoted  by 
Gamgee,  attributes  to  the  consistency  of  the  fluid  and 
gaseous  admixture.  Williams,  however,  insists  that  cases 
of  traumatic  pericarditis  occur  without  gaseous  eructa- 
tions, splashings,  and  gurglings.  Percussion  gives  dul- 
ness  of  sound  over  the  inflamed  membrane. 

Fort-mortem  examination. — Stomach  and  intestines  con 


THE    CIECULATORY    SYSTEM.  215 

tain  gas.  Eeticulum^  containing  sometimes  clotted  blood  or 
food  intermingled  witli  blood,  presents  a  fistula  extending 
to  the  pericardial  sac ;  sometimes  several  are  present.  The 
walls  of  tbe  passage  are  formed  of  lymph,  which  firmly 
bmds  the  rumen,  diaphragm,  and  pericardium  together. 
Generally  the  passage  is  blocked  up  with  lymph.  Fluid 
may  be  present  in  the  subcutaneous  areolar  tissue  and  in 
the  abdominal  and  thoracic  cavities,  attributable  in  the 
two  former  to  the  impediment  to  the  circulation,  in  the 
latter  case  also  to  congestion  or  inflammation  of  the  pleura, 
such  as  is  generally  present.  The  mediastinal  layer  of 
the  pericardium  is  involved  in  this  inflammation.  The 
fibrous  layer  is  thickened  by  interfibrillar  deposit,  and 
the  two  layers  of  the  serous  pericardium  are  the  seat  of 
thick  deposits  of  organised  lymph,  which  is  firmer  as  it 
is  more  distant  from  the  serous  cavity.  Hence  it  projects 
into  the  latter  as  a  flocculent  layer,  and  in  some  places 
the  parietal  and  visceral  layers  are  bound  together  either 
over  an  extent  of  surface  or  by  bands  of  lymph.  An 
amount  of  serous  fluid,  rendered  milky  by  admixture  of 
lymph,  or  sanguineous,  occupies  the  sac.  Sometimes  the 
lymphy  deposits  have  undergone  cretaceous  degenera- 
tion and  fatty  change.  Often  a  lesion  of  the  heart 
can  be  detected,  and  generally  the  foreign  body  is  found 
in  the  passage  somewhere  between  the  reticulum  and 
the  heart- cavity ;  it  being  more  or  less  altered  by 
its  strange  journey.  The  muscular  structure  of  the 
heart  is  the  seat  of  interfibrillar  lymphy  deposit, 
and  sometimes  the  fibrous  bands  of  the  cavities  are 
lacerated. 

Projphylaxis  consists  in  the  rigid  exclusion  of  needles, 
large  pins,  &c.,  from  the  dresses  of  dairymaids  and  other 
female  attendants  on  cows,  also  careful  examination  of  the 
food  of  the  horned  beasts. 

Curative  measures  are  deemed  useless  in  such  cases,  and 
on  diagnosis,  immediate  slaughter  is  to  be  suggested.  A 
French  practitioner  was  recently  successful  in  curing  a 
case  by  operation. 

In  '  Yeterinarian,'  vol.  vi,  p.  128,  is  recorded  a  case  in 


216  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

which  the  needle  seems  to  have  passed  back  from  the 
pericardium  and  re-entered  the  rumen,  in  the  walls  of  which 
it  became  fixed. 

Prognosis  unfavorable.  The  animal  lives  under  the 
acute  attack  several  days. 

The  idiopathic  form  of  Pericarditis  depends  upon  ex- 
posure,  change  from  a  hot  to  a  cold  atmosphere,  and  other 
influences  of  a  like  nature  which  determine  visceral  in- 
flammation. Mr.  Litt  describes  a  case  due  to  a  wound 
through  the  thoracic  walls.^  This  disease  assumes  an 
acute  character,  and  is  very  painful.  Its  symptoms  in 
the  main  resemble  those  of  the  traumatic  form,  but  differ 
in  the  less  marked  audibility  of  the  diagnostic  sounds,  and 
in  the  absence  of  signs  of  indigestion  and  the  gaseous 
eructations.  But,  as  we  have  seen,  these  differences  are 
not  always  reliable  ('  Yeterinary  Eecord,^  vol.  i,  p.  119).  In 
one  case  the  patient  had  every  appearance  of  a  horse  suf- 
fering from  laminitis ;  also  the  pulse  was  full  and  bounding, 
100,  with  irregular  intervals  of  vibrating  jerks ;  the  hearths 
action  conveyed  a  singular  tinkling  noise.  In  early  stages 
of  this  disorder  the  pericardium  is  congested,  and  later 
it  is  rendered  opaque  and  then  obscured  by  false  mem- 
branes. It  may  become  gangrenous,  serous  effusion 
and  lymph  exudation  into  the  serous  sac  may  take  place, 
as  in  the  traumatic  form.  A  heart  covered  by  floccu- 
lent  false  membranes  is  a  very  pretty  specimen.  Some- 
times a  heart  which  has  been  affected  with  this  disorder 
is  found  here  and  there  covered  with  opaque  spots  of 
thickened  pericardium.  This  has  been  attributed  to 
rheumatism. 

Treatment.  —  Comprises  careful  nursing,  stimulant 
applications  to  the  sides  of  the  chest,  aconite  to  con- 
trol the.  action  of  the  heart  and  to  lessen  the  amount  of 
fever  present.  Digitalis,  too,  proves  very  useful  through 
its  sedative  influence  and  its  tendency  to  promote  absorp- 
tion. In  the  advanced  stages  of  the  disease  stimulants 
are  required,  and  tonic  agents  promote  resolution.  The 
iodide  of  iron  seems  to  be  especially  indicated  if  all  febrile 
*  See  '  Veterinary  Record,'  1845. 


THE    CIRCULATORY    SYSTEM.  217 

disorder  has  subsided.  After-treatment  must  be  directed 
to  fattening  the  animal  as  the  deposits  around  the  heart 
constantly  tend  to  impede  its  action. 

Complications  have  been  already  indicated^  the  most  fre- 
quent are  carditis  and  pleuro-pneumonia  sporadica. 

Hydrops  Pericardii — Dropsy  op  the  Pericardial  Sac — 
is  generally  that  stage  of  pericarditis  in  which  effusion 
has  taken  place.  The  accumulation  of  liquor  pericardii 
may  occur  in  connection  with  other  dropsical  disorders, 
especially  hydrothorax.  And  in  cases  of  anaemia  the 
normal  amount  is  increased,  but  in  such  instances  the 
accumulation  does  not  interfere  with  the  action  of  the 
heart  or  with  respiration.  '^  Tapping  '^  the  pericardial  sac 
has  been  tried  in  this  disease  of  the  horse.  The  sym- 
ptoms and  treatment  are  those  of  the  advanced  stage  of 
pericarditis. 

Bupture  of  the  Pericardium. — A  case  of  this  nature  is 
recorded  in  the  '  Yeterinarian,'  vol.  viii,  p.  319 ;  com- 
plicated thoracic  and  abdominal  disorder  existed,  and  on 
post-mortem  examination,  the  pericardium  was  found 
ruptured  on  the  right  side,  forming  a  foramen  of  about 
Igth  inch  in  diameter,  and  it  appeared  as  if  the  edges  of 
the  opening  on  one  side  had  receded  from  the  surrounding 
parts.  Adhesive  inflammation  had  formed  a  complete 
duplicature  of  the  pericardium,  which  ''  presented  the 
appearance  of  tanned  leather.^' 

Cardiac  Polypi,  or  Hcematomata,  are  tumours  inside  the 
heart,  generally  resulting  from  endocarditis,  with  granu- 
lation or  subendocardiac  blood  extravasations  and  deposi- 
tion of  coagula  upon  the  roughened  surface.  They 
generally  grow  on  the  valves,  but  may  appear  on  any  part 
of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  heart.  Frequently  they 
assume  the  shape  of  casts  of  the  cavity  in  which  they  are 
placed.  ^They  seem  often  to  cause  no  appreciable  sym- 
ptoms, not  being  suspected  before  the  animal's  slaughter. 
A  tumour  of  this  kind  may  extend  from  the  wall 
of  the  auricle  through  the  auriculo-ventricular  opening 
into  the  cavity  of  the  ventricle,  impeding  the  action  of 
the  valves.      These  masses  of  fibrin  are  often  attached  by 


218  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

a  peduncle  o£  fibrous  or  fibro-cellular  tissue.  Sometimes 
the  tumour  is  gritty  in  parts.  These  polypi  may  cause 
sudden  death,  in  other  cases  the  action  of  the  heart 
is  irregular  and  intermittent,  and  there  is  gradually 
increasing  debility  leading  to  paraplegia  before  the  animal 
dies.^ 

Gamgee  alludes  to  melanosis  and  cancerous  infiltration 
of  the  heart  in  domesticated  animals,  and  mentions  a 
specimen  which  he  saw  in  the  Bologna  Museum,  consisting 
of  a  large  mass  of  echinococcus  cysts  hanging  from  the 
apex  of  the  heart.  Cysticercus  tenuicollis  has  been  met 
with  in  the  pericardial  cavity,  Cysticercus  hovis  and 
Trichina  invade  this  as  well  as  other  muscles.  The  same 
author  makes  the  following  valuable  remarks  on  this 
subject.  ^'The  temperament,  habits,  and  manner  of 
keeping  cows  tied  up  in  a  stall,  lead  to  the  observation  of 
cases  in  these  animals  which  would  give  rise  to  symptoms 
at  a  comparatively  early  period  in  the  hard-worked  horse. 
With  regard  to  external  tumours,  their  weight  is  some- 
times very  great,  and,  when  connected  with  the  apex, 
they  may  attain  a  size  far  exceeding  that  of  the  heart  itself, 
without  inducing  very  serious  symptoms.  This  is  not  the 
case  when  the  deposits  invade  the  base  of  the  heart,  where 
they  obstruct  the  vessels  and  arrest  the  circulation." 

Professor  Walleyes  valuable  paper  on  '^  Hasmatomata 
and  Thrombi,  or  ante-mortem  Clots,''  in  the  '  Veterinary 
Journal '  for  July,  1877,  may  be  consulted  with  benefit  in 
this  relation.  He  attributes  the  ante-mortem  clots,  among 
other  things,  to  elevation  or  injury  of  the  endocardium  by 
foreign  bodies  penetrating  from  the  stomach,  or  by  the 
lodgment  of  entozoa  beneath  it. 

Rupture  op  the  Heaet  sometimes  causes  sudden  death. 
Atrophy  of  the  organ  and  pulmonary  disease  predispose 
to  this,  and  it  is  most  liable  to  occur  in  working  oxen,  as 
it  results  from  violent  efforts  or  from  blows.  It  is,  how- 
ever, very  rare  in  the  cattle.  The  right  auricle  most 
readily  gives  way. 

See  case  recorded  by  Messrs.  Houlden  and  Varnell  ('  Veterinarian/ 
vol.  xxxix,  p.  975).     Emboli  were  found  in  the  heart,  spleen,  and  kidneys. 


THE    CIECULATORY    SYSTEM. 


219 


Malfokmations. — In  tlie  second  volume  of  tlie  ^Abstract 
of  Proceedings  of  the  Veterinary  Medical  Association ' 
(p.  355),  will  be  found  an  account  of  a  heart  consisting  of 
three  cavities  only.  Other  imperfections  of  development 
have  been  recorded.  The  most  frequent  is  Cyanosis, 
which  consists  in  a  pervious  condition  of  foramen  ovale, 
whereby  the  venous  and  arterial  currents  of  the  blood 
are  constantly  intermingled.  Thus,  every  part  of  the 
body  is  supplied  only  with  partially  purified  blood. 
The  animal  is  practically  in  the  condition  of  a  reptile  as 
far  as  blood  supply  goes.  Its  functions  are  performed 
slowly,  its  constitution  is  weak,  its  internal  temperature 
low,  and  its  visible  mucous  membranes  are  constantly  of  a 
purple  or  blue  colour.  Such  animals  generally  die  young. 
This  condition  is  seldom  seen  in  the  lower  animals. 

Misplacements  of  the  Heaet — Ectopia  Coedis. — The 
heart  may  be  situated  in  front  of  the   chest,  in  the  neck. 


Fig.  34.— Ectopia  cordis.     (From  Fleming's  'Veterinary  Obstetrics.*) 

or  be  pressed  backwards  through  an  opening  in  the 
imperfectly  developed  diaphragm  into  the  abdomen,  or,  as 
is  more  frequent,  may  be  situated  below  the  chest  suspended 
by  the  large  blood-vessels  of  its  base  below  the  sternum, 
the   lateral  elements  of   which  have  not  united  along  the 


220  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

central  line.  Animals  with  the  heart  exposed  in  any  of 
these  abnormal  positions  soon  die  from  injury  to  the 
organ. 

Section  2. — Op  the  Arterial  System. 

In  injected  specimens  we  are  struck  with  the  smallness 
of  the  arteries  of  the  ox  as  compared  with  those  of  the 
horse.  They  are,  in  fact,  proportional  rather  to  the  size 
of  the  heart  than  to  that  of  the  veins  or  the  general 
bulk  of  the  body.  The  posterior  aorta  is  an  exception 
to  this,  for  the  coeliac  axis  is  remarkably  large.  The 
principal  diseases  of  arteries  are  degenerations  of  various 
kinds,  which  generally  occur  in  old  animals.  These  are 
atheromatous,  where  chronic  inflammation  has  brought 
about  fatty  degeneration  of  the  endothelial  cells  of  the 
inner  coat  with  thickening  and  cholesterin  deposit  in  its 
deepest  layer.  This  condition  results  from  over  energetic 
action  of  the  heart  long  continued.  We  have  no  record 
of  acute  arteritis.  A  case  of  tuberculous  degeneration  of 
the  ovarian  arteries  is  given  in  the  '  Edinburgh  Veterinary 
Review,'  vol.  i,  p.  379. 

Aneurism  is  abnormal  saccular  dilatation  of  an  artery 
whereby  is  produced  a  pulsating  tumour.  A  ^^  false  aneu- 
rism ''  is  a  sac  formed  by  condensed  areolar  tissue  with  a 
free  communication  with  the  channel  of  an  artery.  True 
aneurism  generally  constitutes  one  of  the  elements  in  a 
case  of  atheroma,  for  the  walls  of  the  vessel,  weakened 
by  degeneration,  gradually  yield  to  the  blood  pressure. 
Cases  of  this  condition  have  been  recorded  as  affecting 
the  ox,  but  the  absence  of  the  usual  causes,  severe  labour, 
powerful  action  of  the  heart,  and  old  age,  prove  material 
preventives.  '^  Spurious  varicose  aneurism  ^'  of  the 
remnant  of  the  spermatic  cord  sometimes  affects  oxen, 
as  denoted  by  swelling  of  the  scrotum,  pulsation  of  the 
part,  and  a  peculiar  bruit.  Cases  of  this  nature  require 
removal  of  the  end  of  the  cord  with  the  clamps  (See 
'  Edinburgh  Veterinary  Review,'  vol.  i,  p.  387).  In  the  same 
volume  is  mentioned  a  case  of  aneurism  of  the  vertebral 


THE    CIECULATOET    SYSTEM.  221 

artery.  In  '  Yeterinarian/  vol.  xii,  p.  125,  is  recorded 
a  case  of  false  aneurism  outside  the  elbow,  whicli  appeared 
suddenly. 

Thrombus. — Partial  or  complete  plugging  of  a  blood- 
vessel with  fibrin  somewhat  resembles  aneurism  in  its 
effects,  for  in  each  case  successive  layers  of  clot 
line  the  wall  of  the  vessel,  the  outer  being  the  oldest 
and  having  undergone  most  extensive  organisation.  The 
cause  of  this  clotting  of  the  blood  in  the  vessels  of  living 
animals  is  generally  some  degenerative  change  of  the 
inner  coat  of  the  artery  rendering  it  rough.  The  patho- 
logical condition  resembles  that  which  we  noticed  in 
endocarditis.  The  tendeucy  of  plugging  of  an  artery  is 
to  cut  off  more  or  less  the  supply  of  blood  to  the  part 
to  which  the  branches  are  distributed.  Generally  anas- 
tomoses of  vessels  atones  indirectly  and  gradually  for  this. 
Plugging  of  a  vein  is  still  less  important.  Sometimes  a 
portion  of  fibrin  broken  off  from  the  thrombus  is  carried 
in  the  round  of  the  circulation  and  becomes  forced  into  a 
vessel  through  which  it  cannot  pass.  It  becomes  fixed, 
therefore,  and  proves  more  or  less  detrimental  according 
to  the  part  affected.  It  is  termed  an  emholism.  The 
capillaries  of  the  lungs,  spleen,  and  kidneys  are  small  and 
so  sometimes  become  involved  in  this  manner.  Emboli 
and  thrombi  are  formed  in  some  blood  diseases,  especially 
in  the  lungs  in  pleuro-pneumonia  epizootica. 

Wounds  op  Aeteeies  present  no  special  features  in  the 
ox.  They  are  comparatively  unimportant  since  the  arteries 
are  small  and  are  denoted  by  a  jerky  flow  of  bright  blood. 
Transverse  cuts  when  the  vessel  is  not  completely  severed 
and  oblique  wounds  are  the  most  persistent  in  bleeding. 
Such  are  best  treated  by  completing  the  incision.  The 
ligaturing  of  arteries  is  an  important  part  of  all  surgical 
operations  with  the  knife  (see  Figs  35  and  36). 

Ieeegulaeities  op  Aeteeies  occur  in  the  ox  as  in  all 
other  animals,  and  are  due  to  imperfection  of  develop- 
ment, or  to  recurrence  to  previous  type,  or  to  higher 
specialisation.  They  are  seldom  so  important  as  to 
interfere  with  surgical  operations. 


221 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


Section  3. — Of  the  Capillaet  System. 

Capillary    Hemorrhage,    due    to   rupture    of    minute 
vessels,  occurs  in  acute  congestion,  and  sometimes  in  in- 


FiG.  35.— The  Artery  Ligature 
Knot. 

Fig.  36. — Showing  the  proper  methorl  of  tying 
an  artery.  The  Artery  Forceps  in  use. 
(From  '  Erichsen's  Surgery.') 

flammation.  It  is  a  very  frequent  condition  in  blood  dis- 
eases, when  it  is  due  to  a  depraved  state  of  the  blood, 
wbicb  exudes  through  the  unbroken  walls  of  the  vessels, 
giving  rise  to  hsBmorrhagic  discharges,  petechise,  and 
ecchymoses.  It  is  seldom  so  important  as  to  necessitate 
those  measures  suggested  for  internal  haemorrhage. 


Section  4. — Op  the  Venous  System. 

This  set  of  blood-vessels  in  the  ox  is  remarkable  for 
large  calibre,  and,  therefore,  for  very  considerable  total 
capacity. 

Phlebitis. — Inflammation  of  a  vein  sometimes  takes 
place  as  a  result  of  injury  (as  bleeding  with  dirty  and 
rough  instruments),  or  from  extension  of  inflammation  of 
neighbouring  parts.  It  most  frequently  affects  the  ex- 
ternal jugular  vein,  which  differs  from  that  of  the  horse 
in  being  larger,  and  in  having  an  accessory  vessel — the 
internal  jugular,  which  runs  with  the  carotid  artery.    This 


THE    CIRCULATORY   SYSTEM.  223 

latter  anatomical  point  shows  why  obliteration  of  the  vessel, 
which  may  result  from  phlebitis,  is  less  likely  to  interfere 
with  the  grazing  capabilities  of  an  ox  than  of  a  horse. 
The  changes  which  take  place  in  the  inflamed  vessel  are, 
roughening  of  the  coats  with  exudation  from  them,  stag- 
nation of  the  blood,  coagulation,  and  organisation  of  the 
clot ;  abscesses  also  form  along  the  course  of  the  vessel. 

Treatment  consists  in  general  and  local  antiphlogistic 
measures,  and  subsequently  blisters  along  the  course  of 
the  affected  vessel.  Embolic  pneumonia  may  result  from 
this  (see  'Veterinarian,^  vol.  xii,  p.  717). 

Thrombus  of  veins  has  been  observed.  Sucking  of 
air  into  the  heart  through  the  jugular,  and  the  occurrence 
of  concretions,  have  not  been  recorded  in  bovine  practice 
in  this  country. 

Rupture  of  Veins,  as  a  result  of  lacerated  and  incised 
wounds,  is  not  unfrequent,  and  sometimes  this  lesion 
follows  injury  of  other  kinds.  Thus,  Gamgee  observed, 
in  Italy,  cases  of  rupture  of  vena  azygos  to  be  very  fre- 
quent in  animals  destroyed  by  "pithing^^  between  the 
atlas  and  axis.  On  this  point  Professor  Maffei  told  him 
that  he  noted  the  ruptures  in  57  out  of  over  3000  oxen 
and  cows  killed  in  the  way  indicated.  The  ruptures  took 
place  at  various  parts  of  the  vessel,  and  the  extravasated 
blood  trickled  between  the  laminae  of  the  mediastinum  or 
beneath  the  parietal  pleura  ('  Domestic  Animals,^  p.  360, 
second  division).  Wounds  of  veins,  denoted  by  free  and 
even  flow  of  dark  blood,  are  not  serious,  since  it  is  impure 
blood  which  is  lost ;  the  escape  is  less  rapid,  and  its 
"  welling  character  facilitates  coagulation,  whereby  nature 
temporarily  repairs  the  lesion.^^ 

A  remarkable  case  of  rupture  of  the  jugular  has  been 
recorded  by  Mr.  Hill,  of  Wolverhampton  ('Veterinary 
JournaV  1880,  vol.  i,  p.  291). 

Varicosity  is  undue  distension  of  a  vein,  giving  it  a 
saccular  character.  It  depends  upon  any  debilitating 
influence  temporarily  affecting  the  wall  of  a  vein. 
It  is  most  frequent  in  those  which  pass  from  important 
organs.     Thus,  it  affects  the  veins  of  the  udder   of  the 


224  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

COW,  and  has  been  seen  in  the  spermatic  veins  of  the  bull 
constituting  varicocele.  It  seldom  is  seen  except  in  old 
animals,  and  appears  gradually.  Sometimes  the  dilata- 
tion is  the  seat  of  active  inflammation  ;  then  antiphlo- 
gistic treatment  is  required.  Less  urgent  cases  are 
preferably  left  alone,  but  a  bandage  or  plaster  may  be 
required  to  protect  the  enlarged  vessel  and  to  support  its 
walls  by  gentle  pressure.^ 

Tumours  of  Veins. — Messrs.  Hill  and  Duguid  give  a 
case  of  tumour  of  the  anterior  vena  cava,  materially 
reducing  its  calibre,  due  to  circumscribed  hypertrophy  of 
its  muscular  coat  (^Yeterinary  Journal,^  1876,  vol.  ii, 
p.  14). 

Addendum  1. — Diseases  of  the  Lymphatic  System. 

The  lymphatic  system  of  the  ox  is  distributed  much  as 
in  the  horse.  The  thoracic  duct  is  remarkable  for  its 
frequent  variations  (Colin).  The  mesenteric  glands  are 
situated  close  against  the  small  intestines,  instead  of  at 
the  root  of  the  mesentery,  where  they  are  in  the  horse. 
Large  glands  occur  in  certain  positions,  notably  the 
posterior  mediastinum  and  the  space  between  the  cranium 
and  the  pharynx.  These  become  inflamed  when  any 
irritating  absorbed  material  passes  through  them.  Of 
this  nature  are  the  so-called  cases  of  strangles  of  the 
ox  as  has  been  described,  the  intermaxillary  or  parotid 
glands  being  the  seat.  These  glands  are  also  the  seat  of 
scrofulous,  cancerous,  and  other  forms  of  deposit,  while  in 
many  blood  diseases,  especially  anthracoid  affections,  they 
are  enlarged,  reddened,  and  disintegrated.  Cases  of 
"  farcy "  in  the  ox,  which  have  been  described  by  some 
writers,  were  probably  inflammation  of  the  lymphatics, 
resulting  in  the  formation  of  series  of  abscesses  along  their 
course,   accompanied    by   infiltration    of    serum    into  the 

*  Mr.  J.  H.  Cox,  of  Ashbourne,  gives  a  most  interesting  case  of  varicosity 
of  the  posterior  vena  cava,  in  which  obscure  abdominal  pain  was  present, 
and  the  vein  was  enormously  distended  ('  Veterinarian,'  vol.  xxxix,  p.  891). 
Cruzel  tells  us  that  asphyxia  from  the  introduction  of  air  into  the  veins  is 
frequent  in  places  where  venesection  is  often  performed. 


THE    CIECULATORY   SYSTEM.  225 

surrounding  parts.      In  sucli  cases  the  cause  must  primarily 
be  removed,  and  poulticing  and  other  emoj 
taken  in  regard  to  the  poisoned  wound./'  S( 
system  will  require  stimulation  and  supporfc.   The  ab; 
must  be  treated  in  the  usual  manner.     \(^r  ^ il  ^  T    '     ^ 

Lymphadenoma  or  Lymphoma  is  hyperi^^hy  of  lym-  *  P* 
phatic  glandular  structure,  resulting  in  tuW)ur3,  wlifj"^^. 
often  are  said  to  be  malignant.  This  disease  ^J!  thU"^ 
glands  causes  and  accompanies  leukeemia. 

Addendum  2. — Diseases  of  the  Vascular  Glands. 

The  vascular  or  ductless  glands  are  occasionally  dis- 
eased in  the  ox.  The  Spleen  in  this  animal  is  situated 
on  the  upper  part  of  the  rumen  to  the  left ;  it  is  oval  and 
flattened,  and  is  smaller  than  in  the  horse.  Its  normal 
weight  is  about  two  pounds.  It  undergoes  enlargement 
periodically  during  active  gastric  digestion,  but  it  some- 
times is  considerably  increased  in  bulk,  having  become 
hypeiirophied ;  in  anaemic  animals  it  is  often  found  in  an 
atrophied  state. 

Inflammation  of  this  organ  is  described  by  several 
British  authors,  but  a  careful  examination  of  their  ac- 
counts makes  it  evident  that  they  were  dealing  with 
splenic  fever.  This  error  occurs  especially  in  older  works. 
Cruzel  describes  it  as  frequent  among  working  oxen. 
Lymphomatous  and  scrofulous  deposits  may  have  their  seat 
in  this  organ.  In  cases  of  tuberculosis  sometimes  it  is 
firmly  fixed  to  the  stomach,  liver,  and  intestines,  by 
tuberculous  masses  invested  by  peritoneum. 

Hydatid  Cysts  [Echinococcus  veterinorum)  sometimes 
grow  in  the  spleen,  causing  considerable  diminution  of  its 
proper  structure. 

Lastly,  Rupture  sometimes  takes  place.  The  walls  of  its 
venous  sinuses  give  way,  and  the  extravasated  blood  either 
accumulates  beneath  the  peritoneal  capsule,  or,  that  having 
ruptured,  escapes  into  the  peritoneal  sac.  The  former 
condition  may  be  seen  in  splenic  fever,  the  latter  results 
from  blows,  falls,  or  other  injuries.      The  symptoms  of  the 

15 


226 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


latter  are  those  of  internal  haemorrhage,  together  with 
subacute  abdominal  irritation.  Such  cases  are  not  amen- 
able to  treatment,  but  the  usual  means  adopted  for 
internal  hasmorrhage  must  be  tried ;  administration  of 
haBmostatics,  as  sulphuric  acid,  and 
tannic  and  gallic  acids,  &c.  Death, 
however,  generally  comes  on  rapidly. 
The  Thyroid  Body  is  large  in  the 
ox.  It  is  sometimes  the  seat  of  indu- 
ratioUj  but  more  frequently  becomes 
large,  either  as  a  result  of  colloid 
change,  to  which  this  organ  is  very 
liable,  or  in  consequence  of  the  de- 
velopment of  cysts  within  its  sub- 
stance. Two  cases  of  disease  of  this 
body  are  given  in  the  '  Vetorinarian,' 
vol.  xvi,  pp.  194  and  498.  It  may  be 
removed  by  operation,  if 'so  large  as  to 
cause  inconvenience.  Generally  its  ex- 
cessive size  is  only  an  eyesore,  but  it 
may  interfere  with  respiration. 

The  Thymus  Body  of  the  calf  is 
large,  extending  far  up  the  neck  und 
into  the  anterior  mediastinum.  Some- 
times it  is  enlarged.  In  the  'Vete- 
rinarian,^ 1852,  p.  691,  is  an  account 
of  a  case  of  this  nature,  in  which  the 
organ  had  undergone  tubercular  soft- 
ening, weighed  forty- nine  ounces,  and 
measured  twenty-three  inches  in  its 
greater  circumference.  Mr.  William 
Lyon,  of  Forfar,  removed  it  success- 
fully by  operation. 

We  have  no  record  of  disease  of 
the  Adrenals  of  the  ox. 


<^ 


Fig.  37.— a  piece  of 
thymusof  a  calf  spread 
out.  Natural  size.  a. 
Central  canal,  b.  Lo- 
bules, c.  Isolated  gland 
granules  seated  upon 
the  principal  canal. 
(After  Harley  aud 
Brown.) 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  227 


CHAPTEH  lY.— DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE 
SYSTEM. 

Section  I. — Oe  the  Alimentary  Canal. 

Being  a  ruminant,  the  ox  has  certain  characteristic 
differences  of  structure  and  form  of  the  digestive  organs 
as  compared  with  those  of  the  horse  ;  also  there  are  special 
features  in  which  this  animal  differs  from  other  ruminants. 
The  large  size  of  the  abdomen  and  the  considerable 
bulk  of  the  mass  of  the  alimentary  canal,  together  with  its 
extent  of  surface  and  its  large  supply  of  blood,  lead  us  to 
anticipate  numerous  and  complex  disorders  of  the  diges- 
tive system.  In  this  we  are  not  mistaken.  The  weight 
of  the  stomach  and  intestines  is  considered  143  per  cent, 
of  that  of  the  whole  body  (Lawes).  The  lijps  are  liable  to 
become  involved  in  malignant  disease  of  the  face,  but 
most  frequently  come  under  the  notice  of  the  surgeon  as 
the  seat  of  laceration  or  other  wound.  In  the  treatment  of 
such  lesions  no  part  which  can  possibly  be  saved  must 
be  removed.  These  organs,  with  the  dental  pad,  hard 
palate,  and  gums,  also  are  the  seat  of  vesicular  eruptions 
in  foot-and-mouth  disease,  and  of  some  of  the  characteristic 
lesions  in  cattle  plague.  Cruzel  describes  inflamination  of 
the  lips  at  some  length. 

The  Incisor  Teeth  of  the  ox  (fig.  38)  are  eight  in  number, 
all  in  the  lower  jaw,  placed  with  their  crowns  arranged 
'^  like  the  keyboard  of  a  piano,^^  their  upper  surfaces 
meeting  the  dental  pad.  They  have  very  small  fangs,  and 
are  loosely  fixed  in  the  jaw,  the  yielding  of  this  part  being 
increased  by  the  non-union  of  the  symphysis.  They  may 
be  fractured  or  forced  out ;  if  only  one  or  two  are  injured 
this   will  not  materially  interfere   with  the   obtaining  of 


228 


BOVmE    PATHOLOGY. 


food,  otherwise  the  animal  may  require  to  be  house-fed. 
Professor  Simonds,  in  his  work  upon  the  ^  Age  of  the  Ox, 
Sheep,  and  Pig/  notices   certain  irregularities  of  the  in- 


FlG.  38 — Incisors  of  the  ox. 
margin,  g.  Inner  edge. 
(Chauveau.) 


a.  Crown,     h.  Fang. 
A.  Superior   surface. 


c.  Neck.    /.  Nipping 
B.  Inferior  surface. 


cisors  of  the  ox,  due  to  persistence  or  non-appearance  of 
temporary  teeth.  Such  have  not  much  practical 
importance. 

The  Molars  of  the  ox  (fig.  39)  differ  from  those  of  the 
horse  mainly  in  the  fact  that  the  three  anterior  ones  are 
small,  as  compared  with  the  three  posterior  in  each  series. 
The  fangs  are  smaller  and  more  subdivided.  The  tables 
are  less  complex  and  more  rough  and  irregular,  with 
jagged  points,  which  often  injure  the  insides  of  the  cheeks 
(and  such  lacerations  acquire  importance,  since  it  has  been 
proved  that  they  are  the  breach  through  which  the  bacteria 
enter  in  many  cases  of  anthrax).  These  teeth  are  loosened 
by  epitheliomatous  or  osteo-sarcomatous  growths.  They 
may  be  affected  by  caries,  and  those  other  pathological 
conditions  which  have  been  seen  in  the  horse,  but  such 
cases  seem  to  be  extremely  rare.  "We  also  seldom  find 
records  of  their  displacements  abnormally.  Cattle  also 
do  not  seem  to  suffer  from  teething.  Our  researches  have 
disclosed  a  case  where  the  sole  of  a  boot  became  fixed 
on  the  molar  series  of  one  side  of  the  lower  jaw,  giving 
rise  to  dysphagia  (difficulty  in  feeding).      And  in  '  Veteri- 


THE    DIGESTIVJE   SYSTEM. 


229 


narian/  vol.  xii,  p.  143,  is  recorded  a  most  remarkable  case 
of  a  normally  formed  incisor  being  developed  in  tbe  centre 
of  the  palate  of  a  young  bull. 


Fig.  39.— Teeth  of    the   ox.       1.    Upper:    a,   from   below;    h,    from   side. 
2.  Lower :  a,  from  above ;  b,  from  side.     (Chauveau.) 

The  hard  palate  of  the  ox  is  wide  and  roomy  poste- 
riorly at  its  intermolar  portion,  but  in  front  of  this  is 
narrowed  by  the  ridges,  convex  inwards,  which  afford 
attachment  to  Canini.  These  muscles  contract  during 
mastication,  and  thus  diminish  the  anterior  opening  of  the 
mouth,  at  the  same  time  leaving  the  lips  free  to  act.  The 
muscles  of  mastication  in  ruminants  are  well  developed. 
Pterygoideus  and  masseter  internus  are  large,  and  masseter 


230 


BOVINE  PATHOLOGY. 


externus  may  be  divided  into  several  superposed  layers, 
and  anteriorly  receives  a  tendon  of  Panniculus,  represent- 
ing Sterno-maxillaris.  Digastricus  has  but  one  belly,  and 
runs  directly  from  the  occipital  styloid  process  to  the  in- 
ferior maxilla.  Stylo-maxillaris  is  absent.  The  temporo- 
maxillary  joint  is  arranged  to  allow  of  very  free  lateral 
movement,  the  glenoid  surface  being  convex.  In  mastica- 
tion and  remastication  the  jaw  is  moved  for  a  number  of 
times  to  one  side,  and  then  the  action  is  reversed.  Thus, 
the  right  and  left  molar  series  are  periodically,  but  not 
alternately,  brought  into  use. 

''  Deopping  the  Cud"  takes  place  in  certain  diseases  of 
the  mouth  where  mastication  is  painful,  but  is  also  one  of 
the  symptoms  of  certain  subacute  forms  of  indigestion 
dependent  upon  bad,  bulky,  and  innutritions  food.  In 
such  cases  the  animal  is  unthrifty,  with  irregular  bowels, 
stciring  coat,  and  depraved  appetite.  A  cathartic  dose, 
with  change  of  diet,  will  generally  effectually  remove 
this  irregularity. 

Salivary   Olands. — The    parotids    are    smaller    propor- 


FiG.  40. — Salivary  glands  with  their  ducts.  d.  Parotid;  a,  its  duct. 
0.  Prohes  in  submaxillary  ducts,  e.  Sublinguals,  b.  Termination  of 
parotid  duct.     (Simonds.) 

tionally  than  in  the  horse,  but  this  is  compensated  for  by 
the  large  size  of  the  inferior  buccal  glands.      They  secrete 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  231 

constantly,  but  most  markedly  when  alimentary  matters 
are  in  the  mouth  being  masticated ;  then  the  alternate 
action  of  each  gland,  in  accordance  with  unilateral  masti- 
cation, is  marked.  During  abstinence  the  flow  is  about 
a  quarter  as  great  as  during  mastication,  and  the  fluid 
passes  generally  into  the  reticulum.  Though  about  equal 
in  size  to  the  submaxillary,  this  gland  produces  four  or 
five  times  as  much  fluid  [Sp.  gr.  1*0108  (Lassaigne)]. 
The  flow  of  submaxillary  saliva  is  unaffected  during 
rumination.  The  total  quantity  of  mixed  saliva  produced 
by  an  ox,  taking  three  hours  to  feed  and  five  to  rumi- 
nate, was  estimated  at  40,000  grammes  during  the  eight 
hours'  mastication  and  16,000  grammes  during  abstinence, 
making  a  total  of  56,000  grammes  in  twenty-four  hours ; 
this  is  probably  under-estimated  (Colin).  Submaxillary 
saliva  is  constantly  produced  during  abstinence  in  small 
quantities  ;  it  is  abundant  during  feeding,  and  its  quantity 
is  related  to  the  quality  and  taste  of  the  food  and  to  the 
rapidity  of  mastication.  Sublingual  saliva  may  be  obtained 
from  the  accessory  duct  which  runs  from  the  posterior 
lobe  of  the  gland  and  opens  near  the  submaxillary  duct ; 
it  is  constantly  produced  and  is  very  viscid ;  probably  it 
serves  to  coat  the  pellet  of  food.  The  well-developed 
condition  of  the  salivary  apparatus  accounts  for  the  fact 
that  it  is  readily  acted  upon  by  even  small  doses  of 
mercury,  whereby  excessive  secretion,  Ptyalism,  is  pro- 
duced. It  also  explains  how  sufiicient  fluid  is  passed  into 
the  rumen  to  thoroughly  macerate  the  large  quantity  of 
material  it  can  contain.  Mr.  Cox,  of  Ashbourne,  in  the 
'Veterinarian,'  vol.  xxv,  p.  695,  gives  three  cases  of 
ptyalism,  due  to  paralysis  for  they  were  accompanied  by 
inability  to  raise  the  eyelid  and  a  pendulous  condition  of 
the  ear  and  of  the  upper  lip.  A  blister  around  the  base 
of  the  ear  and  a  laxative  dose  cured  these  cases  in  a 
month.      In  two  other  cases  no  paralysis  was  present. 

Inflammation  of  the  Salivary  Glands  seldom  takes 
place  as  a  disease  in  itself,  though  these  organs  are 
generally  involved  in  cases  of  sore  throat.  Cases  of 
Parotiditis  sometimes   are  seen,  but   it  is  the  lymphatic. 


232  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

and  not  tlie  salivary  parotid  gland  which  is  affected  in  almost 
every  instance.  Youatt  tells  us  that  "  this  condition  is  an 
almost  invariable  accompaniment  of  catarrhal  affection  of 
the  upper  air  passages,  and  there  is  scarcely  any  epi- 
demic [sic)  among  cattle,  one  of  the  earliest  symptoms  of 
which  is  not  swelling  of  the  head  and  neck/^  There  are 
swellings,  with  heat  and  pain  on  pressure,  on  the  seat  of 
the  parotid,  abscesses  form  and  burst,  and  thus  produce 
obstinate  sores.  Youatt  says,  ^'  In  inflammation,  apparently 
of  only  an  inconsiderable  portion  of  the  parotid  gland,  we 
have  known  ulcers  of  the  most  offensive  character  extend 
from  ear  to  ear,  and  expose  the  most  important  vessels  of 
the  upper  part  of  the  neck/^  He  apparently  here  alluded 
either  to  scrofulous  tumours  or  to  the  condition  known  as 
osteo-sarcoma  or  spina  ventosa  {vide  infra).  Ordinary 
parotiditis  needs  no  special  measures  of  treatment. 
Fomentations  will  be  found  most  valuable,  and  steaming 
the  air  passages  is  useful.  In  the  '  Yeterinarian,^  vol. 
xxxii,  p.  433,  is  given  a  case  of  cuticular  cyst  in  the 
parotid.  Congestion  of  the  buccal  mucous  membrane 
sometimes  interferes  with  the  flow  of  saliva  into  the 
mouth,  since  the  openings  of  the  submaxillary  ducts  below 
the  tongue,  and  sometimes  those  of  the  sublingual  in  the 
channel  between  it  and  the  molars,  become  tumid  and 
congested,  a  condition  vulgarly  known  as  harhs  or  paps. 
This  will  disappear  with  its  cause.  Cruzel,  however,  says 
decidedly,  that  operative  removal  is  necessary. 

Salivary  Calculi  do  not  seem  to  occur  often  in  cattle. 

The  tongue  of  the  ox  is  pointed,  more  conical,  and 
thicker  than  that  of  the  horse,  and  has  stouter  muscles. 
It  is  used  as  the  main  organ  of  prehension,  for,  curling 
round  a  tuft  of  grass  it  draws  this  into  the  mouth,  while 
the  incisors  meet  the  dental  pad  and  bite  off  the  morsel 
at  a  short  distance  above  the  ground.  The  tongue  is 
furnished  with  conical  papillae,  and,  since  it  is  much  ex- 
posed during  the  performance  of  its  prehensile  functions, 
is  protected  by  a  stout  horny  epidermis.  Conical  papillae, 
resembling  those  of  the  tongue,  are  found  inside  the  cheeks 
These  probably  serve   to   retain   the  food  in  the   mouth. 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  233 

The  protrusibility  of  the  tongue  results  from  the  well- 
developed  condition  of  those  lingual  muscles  attached  to 
the  symphysis,  and  from  the  presence  of  a  well-developed 
middle  cornu  of  the  os  hyoides.  This  highly  important 
organ  is  liable  to  disease  of  different  kinds — inflamma- 
tion, degeneration,  and  malignant  glossitis. 

Glossitis  [inflammation  of  the  tongue)  is  a  disease  of 
by  no  means  rare  occurrence,  attributable  to  ingestion  of 
rough  course  food,  frosty  grass,  and  injuries  (mechanical 
or  chemical).  It  also  is  a  complication  occasionally 
seen  in  eczema  epizootica  when  badly  treated  or  neg- 
lected. The  whole  organ  may  be  diseased  or  only  part 
of  it.  The  resulting  changes  are  induration,  suppuration, 
or  gangrene. 

Symptoms. — General  signs  of  fever  ;  profuse  flow  of 
saliva  from  the  mouth,  which  is  very  hot,  the  tongue 
then  becomes  enlarged  and  reddened,  and  hangs  from  the 
mouth.  Sometimes  the  epithelial  layer  is  raised  from  the 
deeper  portion  of  the  mucous  membrane  by  serous 
effusion,  so  that  separation  of  it  may  take  place  to  a 
limited  extent.  The  enlargement  of  the  tongue  and  the 
surrounding  swelling  causes  some  interference  with  res- 
piration, of  course  the  animal  is  not  in  a  position  to  take 
in  food ;  deglutition  also  is  interfered  with.  In  very  acute 
cases  either  abscesses  form  in  the  organ  or  mortification 
sets  in.  In  the  former  case  pointing  takes  place,  and  as 
soon  as  possible,  but  not  prematurely,  the  abscess  should 
be  opened.  In  the  latter  the  protruded  organ  becomes 
livid,  cold,  and  loses  all  feeling  and  power  of  retraction; 
it  has  a  peculiar  odour  with  phlyctenae  on  the  surface,  and 
the  general  symptoms  assume  a  typhoid  character.  In  less 
acute  cases  exudation  of  lympb  into  the  substance  of  the 
tongue  takes  place  ;  this  undergoes  organisation,  and  com- 
pressing the  muscular  structure  of  the  organ,  produces 
atrophy.    Thus  occurs  the  so-called  scirrhus  of  the  tongue. 

Treatment.  —  Active  measures  are  essential.  In  the 
earlier  stages,  besides  nursing,  the  animal  must  receive 
an  aperient  dose,  and  some  suggest  the  necessity  for 
bleeding;  preferably   sedative  and   febrifuge   agents  may 


234  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

be  administered,  tlie  doses  being  so  arranged  tliat  they 
may  prove  refrigerants  to  the  diseased  organ.  Steaming 
the  mouth  is  valuable.  The  animal  should  always  be 
allowed  a  bucketful  of  nitrated  water.  One  of  the  most 
serious  effects  of  this  disease  is  that  it  cuts  off  the 
animals  food  supply.  Nutritive  enemas  must  therefore 
be  given  with  assiduity,  and  all  drinks  administered  in 
gruel  and  with  vegetable  tonics.  When  gangrene  of  the 
affected  organ  sets  in,  but  little  hope  of  a  favorable  result 
must  be  entertained.  Free  incisions  must  be  made  into 
the  tongue.  Extensive  sloughing  may  remove  the  dead 
parts,  and  the  animal  retain  a  portion  of  the  organ 
sufficient  for  house-feeding,  but  generally  death  takes 
place.  At  best  these  cases  are  prolonged,  the  chances 
of  recovery  are  poor,  and  the  animal  will  fall  away  much 
during  the  treatment.  Under  these  circumstances,  our 
duty  is  to  suggest  immediate  slaughter  if  the  animal  be 
in  anything  like  condition  in  the  early  stages  of  a  case  of 
glossitis.  Gloss  anthrax  may  be  confounded  with  this 
disorder,  but  it  is  more  acute. 

Indueation  of  the  Tongue  (Scirrlms). — Generally  this 
is  the  above-described  atrophy  of  the  tongue,  due  to  substi- 
tution of  lowly  organised  fibrous  tissue  for  muscular 
fibre.  Thus,  there  is  no  loss  of  bulk,  indeed,  the  organ  is 
increased  in  size  and  very  hard,  but  markedly  of  contrac- 
tility. This  atrophy  may  involve  part  or  whole  of  the 
organ ;  sometimes  it  affects  only  the  tip,  arising  without 
appreciable  cause,  unpreceded  by  inflammation.  In  any 
case  it  interferes  with  prehension '  and  mastication,  and 
the  animal  becomes  emaciated,  and  should,  therefore,  be 
slaughtered  early.  Interference  with  rumination  and  ex- 
cessive salivation  are  the  most  marked  symptoms. 

Cancer  op  the  Tongue. — In  this  disease  the  organ  is 
the  seat  of  small  nodules  of  carcinomatous  deposit,  which 
more  or  less  replace  the  proper  substance  of  the  organs, 
and  some  of  them  bulge  beneath  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  dorsum.  Some  undergo  softening,  and  the  sub- 
maxillary and  parotid  lymphatic  glands  are  generally 
involved  through   absorption   of   cancerous  matter.      This 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  235 

disease  progresses  slowly  and  materially  interferes  with  the 
development  of  the  animal.  It  is  incurable,  and  the  flesh  of 
cattle  thus  affected  is  not  good  meat,  though  always  con- 
sumed. The  condition  of  the  dorsum  linguas  is  diagnostic. 
The  earliest  account  of  this  with  which  I  am  acquainted 
is  in  the  '  Edinburgh  Veterinary  Review/  1864,  p.  153. 
Some  authorities  consider  this  disease  scrofulous  rather 
than  a  form  of  carcinoma. 

Ceamp  op  the  Tongue. — This  disease  has  been  described 
by  Eberhardt  (see  ^  Veterinarian,' xvii,  153).  It  seems 
to  be  enzootic  in  certain  parts  of  Germany;  is  liable  to 
recur,  and  proves  rapidly  fatal  unless  relievedo  *'  The 
tongue  is  curled  like  a  corkscrew  and  drawn  backwards 
towards  the  upper  part  of  the  throat,  on  which  it  presses 
so  violently  as  to  make  it  evident  that  this  is  the  cause  of 
the  convulsions,  and  that  it  is  only  necessary  to  bring  the 
tongue  into  its  natural  position  to  relieve  the  animal. 
The  attacks  usually  come  on  suddenly  when  the  animal  is 
feeding.  It  starts  suddenly  back  from  the  manger,  begins 
to  breathe  heavily  and  sonorously,  stretches  out  the  head, 
and  sways  to  and  fro.  It  appears  to  be  uneasy,  it  moves 
restlessly  from  side  to  side,  becomes  swollen  or  half 
suffocated,  and  voids  much  dung.  There  is  an  expres- 
sion of  suffering  in  the  countenance  ;  the  eyes  are  pro- 
truded, they  roll  in  their  sockets,  and  have  a  fiery  glittering 
appearance.  The  veins  of  the  head  are  enlarged,  and 
project  in  bold  relief  like  cords.  If  one  of  them  is  pressed 
with  the  finger  the  flow  of  blood  can  be  distinctly  felt. 
The  ears  stands  erect,  the  nostrils  work  convulsively,  the 
mouth  is  held  open,  and  the  whole  face  plainly  speaks 
the  agony  which  the  animal  is  suffering.'-'  Tracheotomy 
may  be  performed  if  considered  necessary. 

Cystic  Diseases  op  the  Tongue. — An  account  of  fibro- 
cystic disease  is  given  in  the  '  Edinburgh  Veterinary  Re- 
view,' iii,  216,  and  a  most  interesting  case  of  pilous  cysts 
in  the  tongue,  possibly  an  inversion  of  the  skin,  is  recorded 
by  Professor  Varnell  ('Veterinarian,'  xxxix,  p.  712). 

The  tongue  of  the  ox  is  comparatively  seldom  injured. 
This  is  due  to  the  absence  of  the  bit  and  the  twisting 


236  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

of  a  halter-rope  into  tlie  mouth,  which  are  fruitful  sources 
in  the  horse.  Sometimes  the  organ  is  lacerated,  and 
sometimes  bitten.  This  organ  must  be  preserved  as 
much  as  possibly  in  its  entirety. 

Paralysis  op  the  Tongue  has  been  seen  as  a  result  of 
disease  of  the  cranium  or  of  the  brain.  It  is  of  rare  occur- 
rence, and  generally  necessitates  slaughter. 

Ulcees  of  the  Tongue  persist  after  foot-and-mouth 
disease,  sloughing  of  gangrenous  portions,  and  injuries. 
They  interfere  very  materially  with  condition,  and  occa- 
sionally require  stimulation  by  caustic  dressings.  The 
mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth  of  the  ox  being  thicker 
than  that  of  the  horse,  is  not  so  frequently  affected  by 
careless  administration  of  caustic  alkalies  imperfectly 
diluted.  Such  accidents  do  occur.  As  a  result  the 
epithelial  layer  may  peel  off  the  organ  in  a  continuous 
sheet,  leaving  the  red  surface  of  the  corium  exposed.  This 
is  highly  painful.  Demulcents  acidulated  are  especially 
indicated  in  such  <;ases. 

Aphtha,  or  "  thrush  in  the  mouth/'  is  a  mild  inflamma- 
tion of  the  buccal  membrane,  leading  to  the  formation  of 
a  crop  of  minute  conical  or  acuminate  vesicles  or  pustules. 
The  number  and  smallness  of  these  suffices  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  blebs  of  foot-and-mouth  disease  ;  they 
appear  especially  on  the  tongue,  burst,  and  leave  ulcers, 
which  may  run  together.  It  results  from  direct  local  irri- 
tation, and  more  frequently  from  ingestion  of  indigestible 
matter.  There  are  present  the  ordinary  signs  of  inflam- 
mation in  the  mouth,  salivation,  heat,  and  redness,  also  im- 
perfect mastication.      Febrile  symptoms  may  be  present. 

Treatment. — An  aperient  saline  dose  is  admissible  to 
expel  the  irritant  substances  from  the  alimentary  canal. 
Locally,  astringent  dressings  may  prove  useful. 

The  Tonsils  of  the  ox  are  depressions  extending  from 
the  lateral  parts  of  the  isthmus  faucium.  These  are  deep, 
and  in  their  walls  are  embedded  ductless  glandular  bodies. 
These  are  the  parts  which  undergo  most  marked  change 
in  diphtheria.  They  are  enlarged  in  sore  throat  of  various 
kinds,  and  are  involved  in  cases  of  anthrax. 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  237 

The  velum  pendulum  palati  of  the  ox  is  short  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  horse ;  thus^  vomited  matter  can 
be  expelled  and  the  animal  can  breathe  through  the 
mouth. 

Congenital  Malfoemation  of  the  Palate  is  sometimes 
seen  in  calves.  We  have  on  record  a  case  of  complete  diver- 
gence of  the  lateral  halves  of  the  facial  portion  of  the  upper 
jaw.  A  case  of  cleft  palate  is  recorded  in  '  Veterinarian/ 
vol.  xlii,  p.  612  ;  in  this^  alimentary  matters  and  saliva 
passed  from  the  right  nostril  during  rumination  or  feeding. 

The  Pharynx  of  the  ox  has  a  single  opening  into  the 
nasal  chambers,  which  run  together  posteriorly,  where  a 
space  exists  between  the  lower  margin  of  the  vomer  and 
the  palatine  suture.  The  openings  of  the  Eustachian 
tubes  are  rounded,  and  the  organ  is  not  separated  from 
basis  cranii  by  guttural  pouches — simply  by  large  post- 
pharyngeal glands.  The  muscles  of  the  pharynx  present 
nothing  peculiar,  and  do  not  seem  to  undergo  paralysis. 

Phaeyngeal  Polypus  is  an  outgrowth,  of  generally  an 
ovoid  figure,  from  the  pharyngeal  mucous  membrane.  It 
acts  as  an  impediment  to  deglutition,  and  sometimes,  by 
falling  over  the  glottal  opening,  causes  intermittent  severe 
dyspnoea  and  coughing.  These  require  to  be  removed  by 
means  of  the  ecraseur  or  ligature.  The  operation  must  be 
performed  through  the  mouth  when  possible,  but  some- 
times the  growth  hangs  from  the  posterior  nares  and  causes 
stertorous  breathing.  In  a  case  recorded  by  Mr.  Young- 
husband,  of  Greystoke,  '^the  head  was  kept  protruded 
nearly  straight  out.^' 

The  CEsojphagus  is  of  a  red  colour  throughout,  is  large 
in  calibre,  terminates  posteriorly  in  the  cesophagean  groove 
above  the  reticulum  at  the  supero- anterior  part  of  the 
the  rumen.  Its  internal  layer  of  muscular  fibres  presents 
a  spiral  arrangement,  resulting  in  double  obliquity.  Thus, 
it  is  adapted  for  deglutition  and  regurgitation  of  the  food 
in  pellets,  which  seem  to  be  formed  in  the  groove  at  its 
posterior  extremity.  Strictly,  the  first  three  compart- 
ments of  the  stomach  of  the  ox  should  be  considered 
modified  portions  of  the  oesophagus.      Transitional  stages 


238  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

from  the  simple  stomach  of  man  or  the  dog  to  the  com- 
plex gastric  arrangement  of  ruminants  may  be  seen  in  the 
horse  and  the  pig. 

CEsopHAGiTis,  Inflammation  of  the  (Esophagus,  has 
been  described,  but  it  is  not  of  frequent  occurrence, 
its  symptoms  are  heat  and  swelling  along  the  channel  of 
the  neck,  profuse  flow  of  saliva,  difiiculty  in  deglutition, 
and  fever  more  or  less  marked. 

Probably  from  a  condition  of  this  kind  results  Fibeous 
Degeneration  op  the  CEsophagus,  as  sometimes  seen 
('  Edinburgh  Veterinary  Review,^  vii,  27).  There  is  nothing 
special  in  this,  for  the  ordinary  result  of  inflammation  of 
muscular  structures  is  the  substitution  of  organised  lymph 
for  contractile  fibre.  Its  effects  are  important;  they  are 
stricture  and  dilatation. 

Dilatation  op  the  (Esophagus  is  less  frequent  than  in 
the  horse,  partly  because  the  oesophagus  is  naturally  larger, 
partly  because  it  performs  a  double  function  in  the  ox, 
and,  therefore,  when  deranged  leads,  to  more  rapid  emacia- 
tion, so  that  any  relaxation  of  the  walls  is  not  so  liable  to 
go  to  extremes.  In  a  case  of  this  kind  but  little  can 
result  from  surgery.  The  muscular  coat  is  weakened  or 
degenerated,  a  state  which  can  seldom  be  repaired.  It  is 
best  to  endeavour  to  feed  the  animal  for  the  butcher. 
This  must  be  done  with  great  care,  and  manipulation  over 
the  course  of  the  oesophagus  from  above  downwards, 
after  a  meal,  will  tend  to  remove  any  accumulation  which 
may  take  place  in  the  weakened  part  when  it  is  in  the 
cervical  region,  where  the  tube  is  most  exposed  to  injury. 
The  diet  must  be  soft  and  nourishing,  so  that  there  may  be 
little  need  for  regurgitation.  In  mild  cases  a  blister  over 
the  affected  part  has  been  found  beneficial.  Vomition, 
periodical  choking,  and  excessive  appetite  are  signs  of 
those  cases  in  which  the  oesophagus  has  a  saccular  dilata- 
tion at  its  inferior  extremity,  which  is  the  most  frequent 
seat  of  the  disorder. 

Stricture  of  the  CEsopKagus  is  due  either  to  hypertrophy 
of  the  muscular  coat,  to  its  fibrous  degeneration  with 
shrinking,    or  to  injury  to   the    mucous  membrane,   with 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  239 

tliickeniDg  and  obliteration  of  its  folds.  The  most  fre- 
quent cause  is  injury  from  too  large  a  pellet  or  mass  of 
food  being  swallowed^  or  from  excessive  force  applied  to 
the  impacted  body  by  the  probang  in  cases  of  choking.  A 
lesion  of  this  nature  follows  corrosive  poisonings  and  may 
necessitate  destruction  of  the  patient  after  recovery  from 
the  toxic  effects  of  the  agent.  Dilatation  of  the  tube 
above  the  stricture  occurs  as  a  complication.  The  thick- 
ening may  extend  along  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
lengtb  of  the  oesophagus  as  a  result  of  inflammation. 

Symptoms. — Swelling  along  tbe  channel  of  the  neck, 
frequent  choking,  and  attempts  to  vomit.  More  or  less 
impediment  to  swallowing  and  accumulation  of  food  above 
the  stricture,  giving  rise  to  a  swelling,  which,  largest  at 
first  after  feeding,  gradually  disappears  until  after  the 
next  meal. 

Treatment  has  been  successfully  adopted  in  sucb  cases 
in  the  horse,  but  the  method  suggested  for  dilatation 
should  be  adopted  in  the  ox.  The  passage  of  probangs, 
of  gradually  increasing  size,  periodically,  may  be  tried  in 
cases  of  circumscribed  stricture;  stimulation,  by  means 
of  a  blister,  will  tend  to  remove  lymphy  deposit.  When 
the  stricture  involves  the  thoracic  portion  of  the  oeso- 
phagus (or  its  terminal  extremity),  it  is  even  less  amenable 
to  treatment.  When  due  to  pressure  of  a  tumour  it 
may  be  cured  by  surgical  removal  of  the  cause.  Certain 
parasites — Spiroptera  scutata  oesophagea  hovis — take  up 
their  abode  in  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  oesophagus. 
They  have  not  been  observed  in  this  country,  but  Miiller 
gives  an  account  of  them  (see  ^Veterinarian,^  vol.  xliii, 
p.  632).     They  may  cause  stricture. 

RuPTUEE  OP  THE  CEsoPHAGUs  rcsults  from  force  applied 
from  within,  as  when  the  probang  slips  round  the  impacted 
body,  or  forces  it  through  the  wall  of  the  tube.  Lacerated 
or  punctured  wounds  from  without,  or  extension  of  ulcera- 
tion, too,  cause  perforation.  An  abscess  has  been  known 
to  burst  into  the  thoracic  portion  of  the  oesophagus,  and 
thus  evacuate  its  pus.  In  these  cases  there  are  two  un- 
satisfactory   points  :   first,   the   food   constantly   tends   to 


240  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

escape  througli  the  wound,  and  keep  it  open ;  secondly, 
when  healing  occurs,  stricture  is  very  liable  to  ensue. 
The  indications  for  treatment  are  :  feed  the  animal  only  on 
soft  food — liquids  are  preferable  ;  after  feeding  remove  all 
foreign  matter  escaping  through  the  wound  ;  dress  with  oil 
or  glycerine  of  carbolic  acid.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  support 
mainly  on  gruel  administered  through  the  hollow  probang. 
The  use  of  the  latter  acts  as  a  preventive  against  stricture. 
When  rupture  has  followed  choking,  and  the  wound  is  sub- 
cutaneous, the  alimentary  material  which  escapes  tends  to 
accumulate  in  the  areolar  tissue.  It  must  be  cut  down 
upon  and  removed,  then  the  edges  of  the  oesophageal 
wound  brought  together  with  wire  sutures  or  carbolised 
catgut,  and  the  case  treated  as  above  mentioned.  Some- 
times only  partial  rupture  occurs  when  the  force  applied 
to  the  probang  is  in  the  proper  direction,  but  too  great. 
Complete  transverse  rupture  of  the  mucous  membrane  then 
takes  place,  and  the  probang  passes  onward  with  a  jerk, 
which  to  the  experienced  practitioner  is  diagnostic.  The 
symptoms  of  choking,  in  such  a  case,  generally  persist 
after  the  canal  has  been  cleared,  and  it  ultimately  becomes 
necessary  to  destroy  the  patient. 

Under  the  heading  ^'Degeneration  of  the  Mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  (Esophagus  '^  in  the  '  Edinburgh  Veterinary 
Review,^  vol.  iv,  p.  235,  is  given  a  case  of  those  warty 
growths,  benign  epithelial  tumours  which  are  not  unfre- 
quently  found  growing  from  the  oesophageal  mucous  mem- 
brane. These  are  sometimes  enormous,  and  give  rise  to 
choking  since  they  materially  diminish  the  calibre  of  the 
tube.  Their  presence  can  only  be  surmised  in  cases  of 
intermittent  choking.  They  constitute  one  of  many 
causes.  The  frequent  passage  of  the  probang  and  other 
treatment  of  ordinary  stricture  may  suffice  to  secure  fitness 
for  the  butcher. 

Choking  is  a  condition  which  commonly  depends  upon 
impaction  or  blocking  up  of  the  oesophagus  by  some  foreign 
body.  Symptoms  of  choking,  however,  arise  from  other 
causes,  as  injuries  of  the  oesophagus  from  sharp  bodies 
swallowed,    also    disease    of     the    pneumogastric    nerve. 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  241 

Impaction  of  foreign  bodies  in  the  oesophagus  occurs  very 
frequently  in  the  ox.  The  symptoms  resulting  from  it 
are  not  so  urgent  as  in  the  horse.  The  animal  stands 
with  the  muzzle  projected^  coughs,  champs  the  jaws,  and 
there  is  a  profuse  flow  of  saliva  from  the  mouth.  Appetite 
and  rumination  are  suspended,  but  there  are  gulping 
efforts.  The  eyes  are  projecting  and  bloodshot,  and  the 
patient  is  very  uneasy ;  there  is  frequent  passage  of  urine 
and  faeces.  When  any  matter  is  ingested  it  is  returned  by 
vomition  through  the  mouth  and  nose.  The  impaction  may 
be  up  against  the  pharynx,  in  the  cervical,  or  in  the  thoracic 
regions  of  the  tube.  In  the  former  case  the  coughing  is 
most  marked  and  respiration  is  interfered  with,  in  the 
latter,  fluid  seems  to  pass,  but  simply  fills  the  passage  up 
from  the  obstruction,  and  is  then  returned  by  vomition; 
also  auscultation  detects  frequently  rushes  of  gas  past  the 
obstruction  (Nelson),  while  altogether  the  symptoms  are 
less  urgent.  When  the  body  is  lodged  in  the  cervical 
region,  swelling  may  be  perceived  on  the  left  side  in  the 
channel  of  the  neck.  This  may  be  large  or  small,  hard  or 
soft,  movable  or  immovable,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  body  and  the  conditions  of  the  oesophagus.  Tym- 
pany early  sets  in,  except  in  those  cases,  which  are  not 
numerous,  in  which  liquids  and  gaseous  matters  can  pass 
the  obstruction.  The  swelling  of  the  rumen  threatens 
suffocation,  and  requires  relief  either  by  puncture  or  by 
passage  of  the  hollow  probang.  On  performing  the  latter 
operation  we  determine  the  presence  of  a  solid  body 
preventing  its  entry  into  the  stomach.  This  body  may 
be  a  turnip,  mangold,  or  potato.  All  such  roots  should 
be  sliced  or  bruised,  especially  when  animals  receive  them 
as  a  change  of  diet,  for  then  they  are  greedily  stowed 
away  in  the  rumen,  and  a  too  large  one  causes  choking. 
Whole  eggs  given  to  improve  the  animal's  condition  are 
much  less  frequently  the  cause  of  choking  in  the  ox  than 
in  the  horse.  The  bulimia  (or  depraved  appetite)  from 
which  cows  especially  suffer  causes  them  to  consume 
strange  bodies,  which  may  become  impacted  in  the  oeso- 
phagus.    Imperfect  salivation  of  coarse  food  seldom  causes 

16 


242  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

obstruction  in  tlie  ox,  indeed  this  is  natural,  for  food  is 
taken  in  hastily  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  saliva  only 
when  it  gains  the  rumen.  Accumulation  of  food  material 
in  a  dilated  oesophagus  and  spasm  of  the  muscular  coat 
are  occasional  causes.  Stricture  is  very  liable  to  cause 
impediment  even  when  pellets  are  passing  up  from  the 
rumen  for  remastication.  Sometimes  "  hair-balls  ''  thus 
cause  choking.^ 

Treatment. — When  we  have  reason  to  suspect  pharyn- 
geal impaction  we  must  have  the  animal's  mouth  kept 
open  by  means  of  an  ordinary  balling  iron,  and  pass  the 
hand  through  the  mouth  to  explore  the  pharynx.  Some- 
times it  will  assist  us  if  an  assistant  presses  the  throat  on 
each  side  behind  the  maxillary  angle  inwards  and  upwards. 
In  the  cervical  region  the  tumour  may  be  manipulated, 
and  attempts  made  to  move  it  upwards  or  downwards. 
These  may  be  aided  by  passing  a  small  quantity  of  oil 
into  the  oesophagus.  Sometimes  manipulation  will  disin- 
tegrate a  mass,  which  will  then  slowly  disappear.  Any 
movement  of  the  body  is  a  favorable  sign.  If  this  method 
fail,  the  probang,  well  oiled,  may  be  passed,  and  gentle 
but  continuous  pressure  exerted  upon  the  impediment, 
which  may  often  be  felt  gradually  yielding  and  passing 
onward  into  the  stomach.  In  less  favorable  cases  it  will 
not  yield.  This  frequently  depends  upon  spasm  of  the 
oesophagus  behind  it,  and  consequently  persistence  in 
passing  the  probang  at  intervals  and  applying  gentle 
pressure  may  be  crowned  with  success.  Some  practitioners 
recommend  morphia  and  aconite  doses  to  allay  the  spasm. 
Carters'  whips,  ropes,  and  other  rough  instruments  are  some- 
times used  instead  of  the  probang  ;  this  is  reprehensible. 
Probangs  are  of  various  kinds.  They  almost  all  consist  of 
an  elastic  tube,  kept  open  by  a  spiral  wire,  and  perforated 
by  a  central  free  stilette.  One  extremity  is  arranged  like  a 
mouth-piece,  the  other  has  a  bulb,  which  is  sometimes  Qgg- 

*  Cases  of  chronic  choking  are  sometimes  seen  in  which  a  portion  of  turnip 
or  other  substance,  of  a  triangular  or  irregular  shape,  becomes  fixed  in  the 
oesophagus,  and  allows  passage  of  food  downwards.  This  generally  takes 
place  near  the  stomach.     A  case  has  been  known  to  last  for  six  weeks. 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM. 


243 


shaped  and  perforated  ;    this   is  apt  to  slip  off  a   rounded 
body,  as   a  turnip,  and   rupture   the  oesophagus.      Others, 

preferably,  have  a  concave 
extremity,  which  allows  firm 
and  even  pressure  on  the 
body.  Mr.  Reed  reminds  us 
that  the  metal  ends  should 
not  be  of  lead,  which  is  in- 
dented by  the  teeth,  and  thus 
becomes  liable  to  tear  the 
oesophagus. 

In  passing  the  jprohang,  a 
wooden  gag,  perforated  cen- 
trally and  with  a  projecting 
handle  at  each  extremity,  is 
placed  in  the  mouth  and  fixed 
by  straps  which  pass  behind 
the  horns.  Two  men  ought  to 
hold  the  head,  each  having  a 


Fig.  41. — Ordinary  method  of  pas- 
sing  the  probang.     (Simonds.) 


Fig.  42. — Armatage's  wooden  Gag. 


handle  in  one  hand  and   the  horn  of   the    opposite  side  in 
the  other.      Thus,  tiie  head  is  straightened  upon  the  neck 


244  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

by  the  elevation  of  the  muzzle.  The  probang,  then,  with 
its  cup-shaped  end  foremost,  is  passed  through  the  opening 
in  the  gag  under  the  pendulous  palate,  carefully  over 
the  epiglottis,  which  it  forces  downwards  somewhat,  and  so 
into  the  oesophagus.  Sometimes  slight  taps  with  the  heavy 
end  of  the  probang  serve  to  start  the  body  forwards.  A 
little  oil  may  be  introduced  through  the  tube  by  removal 
of  the  stilette.  Thus,  also,  the  gas  can  be  drawn  off  when 
the  bulb  enters  the  rumen. 

The   Forceps  Prohang  of   Professor  Simonds  serves  to 
grasp  the  root,  and  so  to  accomplish  its  withdrawal.    It  is 


Fia.  43. — The  Grasping  or  Forceps  Probaug  of  Piofessor  Simonds. 
(Armatage.) 

furnished  at  the  top  end  with  a  screw-handle,  at  the 
other  with  a  pair  of  spring  forceps,  the  latter  being  drawn 
into  the  bulb  when  the  instrument  is  passed  and  secured 
by  a  check  and  screw  to  the  other  end.  The  forceps 
are  serrated  on  their  inner  surface,  and  their  edges  are 
made  somewhat  tapering,  for  the  purpose  of  passing  readily 
between  the  root  and  the  side  of  the  oesophagus.  The  bulb 
being  brought  in  contact  with  the  root  the  screw  check 
is  removed  and  the  forceps  expanded  and  turned  in 
different  directions  to  grasp  the  root.  That  the  obstruc- 
tive is  grasped  is  indicated  by  the  stilette  not  being 
entirely  withdrawable. 

The  Corkscrew  Prohang  of  Lord  is  so  arranged  that, 
when  a  foreign  body  is  reached,  a  corkscrew  can  be  in- 
troduced into  it,  with  the  result  either  of  bringing  about 
its  withdrawal  or  lessening  its  cohesion.  In  the  latter 
case,  after  being  punctured  in  several  places,  the  root  may 
break  up  and  pass  readily  into  the  rumen.  The  screw 
terminates  the  stilette ;  it  can  be  retracted  into  the  tube 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM,  245 

of  the  probang  while  it  is  being  passed,  and  when  the 
obstruction  is  reached  can  be  introduced  into  it  by 
turning  the  handle;  another  probang  is  a  stout  rope  un- 
perforated,  with  a  cap  at  each  extremity.  Sometimes  the 
obstruction  becomes  perforated,  and  allows  the  probang  to 
pass  it,  and  a  large  body  fixed  in  the  cervical  portion  of 
the  oesophagus,  when  moved  from  here,  may  become  fixed 
in  the  lower  extremity  of  the  tube.  These  measures  failing, 
we  must  resort  to  oesophagotomy.  The  muzzle  of  the 
patient  is  elevated,  and  thus  the  lower  part  of  the  neck 
rendered  tense.  An  assistant  is  placed  on  the  right  side 
of  the  animal  and  required  to  press  on  the  oesophagus  at 
the  seat  of  obstruction,  causing  it  to  bulge  towards  the 
left.  The  impaction  serves  to  separate  the  neighbouring 
vessels  upwards  and  downwards,  and  the  oesophagus 
bulges  beneath  the  skin  and  a  thin  layer  of  muscle.  The 
operator,  standing  on  the  left  side,  makes  a  clean  in- 
cision on  to  the  body  of  sufficient  length  to  at  once 
and  freely  allow  its  escape.  The  margins  of  the  oeso- 
phageal wound  are  then  brought  together  by  catgut 
sutures,  and  the  external  wound  similarly  closed.  The 
carbolic  acid  spray  may  be  made  to  play  during  the  opera- 
tion, and  will  materially  increase  the  chance  of  union  by 
first  intention,  so  desirable  in  wounds  of  the  oesophagus. 
The  animal  must  be  fed  on  soft  food,  which  may  be 
injected  directly  into  the  rumen  through  a  canula  (Dycer) ; 
or  sometimes  another  method  of  performing  the  operation, 
preferable  in  many  respects,  is  to  simply  cut  down  upon 
but  not  into  the  oesophagus,  to  endeavour  then  by  gentle 
manipulation  to  break  down  the  obstructing  body,  but  if 
this  fails,  to  insert  an  extremely  fine  probe-pointed  bistoury 
through  a  very  small  opening  and  cut  in  various  directions 
through  the  body,  thus  breaking  it  up,  its  parts  being 
removed  by  manipulation  as  they  separate.  The  advan- 
tages of  this  are  obvious;  it  was  suggested  by  French 
veterinary  surgeons. 

In  cases  of  choking,  after-treatment  is  very  necessary, 
for  recurrence  is  frequent.  Soft  diet  must  be  continued  for 
some  time,  and  the  animal  kept   under  strict  supervision. 


246  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

Such  complications  as  occur  are  sometimes  troublesome ; 
tympany  often  requires  to  be  relieved  by  puncture  with 
the  trocar,  even  before  any  measures  are  adopted  against 
the  choking.  Eupture  and  stricture,  as  results  of  injury 
with  the  probang,  have  been  already  noticed.  Often  a 
very  considerable  formation  of  false  membranes  occurs  at 
the  seat  of  impaction.  When  the  free  end  of  the  probang 
is  brought  up  covered  with  blood,  laceration  of  the  lining 
mucous  membrane  or  rupture  of  both  the  walls  has  taken 
place,  and  the  case  is  probably  hopeless  ;  there  is  a  free 
flow  of  any  fluid  which  is  administered,  and  when  the 
obstruction  is  in  the  thorax,  this  may  pass  into  the  pleural 
sac  and  give  rise  to  pleuritis.  The  animal  continues  in 
pain  and  the  breath  becomes  foetid. 

Prophylaxis  consists  in  having  all  roots  cut  or  bruised,  in 
giving  cattle  only  a  little  at  a  time  of  any  fresh  food,  and 
in  fattening  for  slaughter  animals  which  have  been  thus 
affected. 

VoMiTiON  is  an  expulsion  of  material  from  the  alimen- 
tary canal  as  a  result  of  reversed  peristaltic  action.  Thus, 
it  is  clear  that  it  may  vary  much  in  its  nature  and  severity 
in  the  ox.  We  have  noticed  that  it  is  one  of  the  sym- 
ptoms of  choking  where  the  obstruction  is  near  the 
rumen.  In  other  cases  it  is  simply  expulsion  of  matter 
from  an  over-loaded  rumen,  and  is  one  of  nature's  methods 
of  relief  in  cases  of  hoven.  This  form  is  rather  frequent ; 
the  ejected  matter  mainly  passes  by  the  mouth,  and 
sometimes  amounts  to  an  enormous  quantity.  It  differs 
from  ''  dropping  the  cud  '^  mainly  in  the  rapidity  with 
which  the  aliment  is  ejected,  and  in  the  fact  that  it 
accompanies  indigestion.  Rarely,  the  contents  of  the  true 
stomach  are  thrown  off ;  this,  which  Youatt  terms  "  true 
vomition,''  he  illustrates  by  a  case  from  M.  Cruzel,  in 
the  'Journal  Pratique,'  1830,  p.  322.  The  patient,  an  ox, 
was  unthrifty,  ruminated  seldom  and  slow,  and  had  slight 
tension  of  the  left  flank.  "  Rumination  commenced, 
preceded  by  deep  and  sonorous  eructations  having  a 
penetrating  odour.  This  lasted  about  ten  minutes,  after 
which   the   animal   got    up,   backed   himself   in  his   stall. 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM. 


247 


hung  on  the  chain,  his  fore  limbs  trembled,  he  brought 
his  hind  extremities  as  much  as  possible  under  him,  and 
bent  his  neck  and  depressed  his  head,  and,  after  a  deep 
and  powerful  inspiration,  he  vomited  fifteen  pounds  of 
semi-fluid  matter,  perfectly  triturated.  The  vomiting 
ceased,  the  ox  remained  for  a  moment  motionless^  and 
then  lay  down  again  and  ruminated  afresh.  He  continued 
thus  about  thirty-five  minutes,  when  he  had  a  renewed 
fit  of  vomiting  perfectly  similar  to  the  preceding."      The 


Fig.  44. — (Esophageal  groove,  a.  CEsophagus,  with  (h)  its  opening  into  the 
groove,  d.  Mucous  membrane  dissected  back.  e.  Rumino-reticular 
sphincter.     (Carpenter.) 

act  of  vomiting  is  regulated  by  a  special  centre  in  the 
medulla  oblongata,  is  reflex,  and  is  brought  about  by  a 
deep  inspiration  fixing  the  diaphragm,  contraction  of  all  the 
abdominal  sphincters,  and  then  of  the  abdominal  muscles, 
and  of  the  walls  of  the  stomach,  together  with  reversed  peri- 
stalsis of  the  oesophagus.  Impaction  of  the  rumen  has  been 
treated  by  injection  of  fluid  until  vomition  took  place. 
Vomiting,  too,  is  a  symptom  of  foreign  bodies  in  the  reti- 
culum, and  of  impaction  of  the  oesophagus  near  the  rumen, 
where  the  knot  of  a  straw  or  hay  band  is  apt  to  become  fixed. 


248  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

The  oesophagus  terminates  in  gaining  relations  with  the 
first  three  compartments  of  the  stomach  by  the  oesophageal 
groove.  This  is  a  half  canal  open  below,  the  margins  of 
which  are  mainly  composed  of  longitudinal  white  muscular 
fibres,  which  form  a  loop  at  its  termination  around  the 
opening  into  the  omasum.  These  fibres  are  connected 
together  by  others,  which  run  transversely  beneath  the 
mucous  membrane,  which  resembles  that  of  the  oesophagus. 
The  opening   of  the  groove  below  is  into   the  reticulum 


Fig.  45. — Rumen  and  reticulum  seen  from  left.     Their  left  walls  removed. 
i.  Opening  into  omasum.     (Simouds.) 

anteriorly  and  the  rumen  posteriorly.  The  rumen  or  first 
stomach  occupies  three  fourths  of  the  abdomen,  being 
situated  on  the  left  side,  all  of  which  it  occupies  except 
the  extreme  posterior  part.  It  has  a  capacity  of  many 
gallons.  The  spleen  lies  upon  its  supero-anterior  part. 
It  is  mostly  covered  by  peritoneum,  its  muscular  coat 
presents  fibres  often  transversely  striated,  and  is  arranged 
to  form  bands  in  certain  situations ;  some  of  these 
are  arranged  transversely,  others  longitudinally,  con- 
sequently the  cavity  of  the  rumen  is  divided  into  four 
compartments,  of  which   the  left   are   the  largest.      The 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM. 


249 


mucous  lining  membrane  presents  few  glands,  has  tesse- 
lated  stratified  epithelium,  and  is  elevated  to  form  leaf-like 
papillae,  which  are  largest  in  the  depths  of  the  pouches, 
and  disappear  towards  the  muscular  bands.     The  reticulum, 


Fig.  46. — Rumen  and  reticulum.     Muaculur  coat,      c,  d,  e,f.  Pouches  of  the 
rumen.     (Simonds.) 

or  second  stomach,  hangs  below  the  termination  of  the 
oesophagus  between  the  rumen  and  the  diaphragm.  Its 
lining  membrane  presents  a  "honeycomb'-'  arrangement, 
having  hexagonal  depressions  separated  from  each  other 
by  narrow  ridges,  and  in  them  are  secondary  hexagonal 
depressions.  The  spaces  are  largest  at  the  deeper  part. 
The  whole  surface  presents  conical  papillae.  The  cavity 
is  separated  from  that  of  the  rumen  no  more  than  one 
poucb  of  that  organ  from  another.  This  is  the  smallest 
of  the  stomachs,  and  functions  as  a  pouch  of  the  rumen. 
In  passing  above  this  stomach  the  groove  inclines  from 
left  to  right,  it  terminates  in  the  omasum,  manyplies,  or 
third  stomach.  This  is  situated  on  the  right  of  the  anterior 
part  of  the  rumen,  and  is  curved  and  oval  in  shape  ; 
its  lining  membrane,  with  fibres  from  the  muscular  coat, 
projects  inwards,  forming  folds  or  laminae,  which  are  largest 
at    the    greater    curvature^  at   the.    centre   of   the   organ. 


250 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


They   decrease   in  length   towards  each  orifice ;  only  the 
four  or  five  largest  extend  the  full  length  of  the    organ ; 


Pig.  47. — Omasum   and  abomasum,  opened  lonoritudinally.     5.  Rumino-retl- 
cular  opening.     (Simonds.) 

between  them  lie  the  smallei'  ones.  The  lesser  curvature 
bears  no  folds ;  papillge  occur  over  the  surface  of  the  mem- 
brane, some  conical,  others  clavate. 

The  Abomasum  or  True  Digestive  Stomach  lies  to  the 
right  of  the  antero-inferior  and  central  parts  of  the 
rumen,  extending  from  below  and  to  the  left  of  the 
omasum,  obliquely  upwards  and  backwards.  Thus,  it 
has  a  lesser  curvature  superiorly  placed,  and  a  greater 
postero-inferiorly.  It  commences  at  a  rather  wide  open- 
ing from  the  omasum,  and  terminates  at  the  pylorus. 
The  mucous  membrane  presents  folds,  which  vary  in  their 
direction  in  different  parts.  It  is  villous  and  bears  gastric 
follicles,  whereby  the  succus  gastricus  is  secreted.      The 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  251 

pylorus  has  a  well- developed  spliincter.  There  are  various 
theories  as  to  the  act  of  rumination,  and  the  manner  in 
which  the  different  cavities  are  related  to  this  and  other 
digestive  processes.  A  full  account  of  the  various  views 
is  given  in  Colin's  '  Physiologie  Comparee/  Rumination 
comprises  the  production  of  a  pellet  of  the  slightly  masti- 
cated food  which  for  some  time  has  been  macerating  in 
the  rumen,  its  regurgitation  through  the  oesophagus  and 
pharynx  into  the  mouth,  its  mastication,  and  redeglutition. 
The  matter  is  complicated  by  the  fact  that  one  portion  of 
food  is  regurgitated  a  variable  number  of  times,  depending 
on  the  amount  of  preparation  it  requires.  Liquids  and 
pultaceous  material  pass  at  once  into  the  omasum  as  well 
as  into  the  rumen  and  reticulum.  Coarse  food  may  be 
remasticated  as  many  as  four  or  five  times.  Until 
thoroughly  softened  it  passes  from  the  oesophagus  indif- 
ferently into  the  rumen  or  reticulum.  When  the  rumen 
is  occupied  by  a  sufficient  amount  of  food  it  exerts  a 
churning  and  to-and-fro  movement,  whereby  the  alimen- 
tary matters  undergo  a  certain  amount  of  division,  and  are 
thoroughly  intermingled  with  the  large  quantity  of  saliva 
which  is  poured  down  from  the  mouth;  so  the  contents 
are  softened  and  undergo  those  changes  which  are  due  to 
thorough  insalivation.  There  is  a  considerable  depth  of 
rumen  cavity  below  the  edge  of  the  septum  which  separates 
it  from  the  reticulum ;  the  most  fluid  portions  of  the 
contents  of  the  rumen  most  readily  pass  over  this  *^  high- 
water  mark,"  so  the  contents  of  the  reticulum  are  very 
fluid.  The  muscular  bands  of  the  rumen  are  so  arranged 
that  when  they  contract  they  concentrate  the  organ,  as 
it  were,  towards  the  terminal  extremity  of  the  oesophagus. 
At  the  same  time  contraction  of  the  reticulum  also  occurs, 
and  thus  the  alimentary  material  is  pressed  into  the 
lower  end  of  oesophagus,  and  passed  upwards  in  pellets 
into  the  mouth.  Such  is  the  arrangement  of  this 
oesophageal  groove  that,  when  its  longitudinal  bands 
contract,  they  tend  to  place  the  terminal  opening  of 
the  oesophagus  and  the  opening  into  the  omasum 
opposite    each    other,    connected   practically   by   a    canal 


252 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


cut  off  from  tlio  cavity  of  the  rumen  by  the  contraction  of 
a  sphincter.      When  food  has   been  pressed  into  the   canal 


Fig.  48. — Gastric  mass  viewed  from  the  left.      a.  (Esophagus.      5.  Ramen. 
c.  Reticulum,     e.  Abomasum.    f.  Duodenum. 


Fio.  49. —  Gastric  mass  viewed  from  the  right,      a.  (Esophagu^s.      i.  Rumen. 
c.  Reticulum,     d.  Omasum,     e.  Abomasum.    f.  Duodenum. 

by  contraction  of  the  first  and  second  stomachs  a  sufB- 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  253 

ciently  large  portion  is  cut  off  from  the  rest  by  contrac- 
tion of  the  sphincter^  and  thus  the  pellet  to  be  returned 
to  the  mouth  is  formed.  Reversed  peristalsis  commences 
against  the  omasum  at  that  part  of  the  canal  which  is 
occupied  by  fluid  material  from  the  reticulum.  Some  of 
this  is  forced  into  the  omasum  during  the  contraction  of 
the  canal.  The  action  of  the  rumino-reticular  sphincter 
is  similar  in  nature,  but  reverse  in  its  action  to  that  of 
the  pylorus ;  the  latter  guards  against  passage  of  solid 
masses,  the  former  sometimes  contracts  to  guard  against 
liquids,  as  probably  during  drinking.  Sufficiently  elabo- 
rated food  passes  directly  into  the  omasum,  and  here  is 
subjected  to  compression.  The  laminae  are  so  arranged 
that  matter  can  pass  in  between  them  and  lie  there,  being 
gradually  moved  outwards  towards  the  abomasum ;  but 
the  arrangement  of  their  muscular  structure  is  such  that 
when  the  stomach  contracts  they  also  diminish  in  length, 
and  thus  do  not  block  up  the  channel  at  the  lesser  curva- 
ture of  the  viscus,  along  which,  as  through  part  of  the 
oesophagus,  a  passage  generally  is  open  for  liquids  or  very 
pultaceous  material.  The  anatomical  arrangement  of  the 
oesophageal  canal  shows  no  reason  why,  if  peristalsis  is 
regular  (not  reversed),  the  soft  material  from  the  reti- 
culum should  not  pass  into  the  omasum.  Probably  a 
handing  on  of  prepared  matter  thus  takes  place.  The 
omasum  seems  rather  a  means  of  sustaining  the  groove 
during  rumination,  and  a  protector  of  the  abomasum  from 
the  influx  of  coarse  food  particles,  than  a  reservoir  in 
which  any  important  quantity  of  the  food  is  stored  up  for 
a  time.  These  deductions  from  anatomical  facts  are  con- 
firmed by  several  experiments  by  Flour  ens  on  living 
animals.      Other  theories  of  rumination  are  : 

I.  That  food  handed  from  the  rumen  into  the  reticulum 
is  by  it  moulded  into  a  pellet  and  handed  into  the  oeso- 
phagus, and  that  when  it  again  descends  it  is  soft,  and, 
therefore,  enters  the  omasum,  for  it  passes  over  the 
floor  of  the  groove  without  separating  the  pillars 
(Dauberton) . 

II.  That  the  food  for  remastication  is  driven  into  the 


254  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

oesopliagus  by  t"he  rumen,  and  returns  into  that  compart- 
ment after  its  second  descent  (Duverney,  Simonds, 
Bourgelat,  &c.). 

III.  The  groove  acts  as  a  hand,  grasping  matter  which 
it  takes  from  the  rumen  (Perrault). 

IV.  In  formation  of  the  pellets  a  special  apparatus  is 
employed,  which  consists  of  the  groove,  and  the  openings 
into  the  oesophagus  and  omasum  closed  (Flourens). 

Y.  Energetic  contraction  of  rumen  and  reticulum  forces 
food  into  the  enlarged  extremity  of  the  oesophagus,  which 
"nips  off"  sufficient  for  a  pellet  (Colin). 

Contraction  of  the  diaphragm  and  of  the  abdominal  walls 
are  adjuncts  to  regurgitation.  The  pillars  of  the  diaphragm 
of  the  ox  are  specially  arranged ;  this  peculiarity  seems  to 
favour  rumination  by  preventing  compression  of  the  oeso- 
phagus when  the  diaphragm  contracts.  True  gastric  diges- 
tion in  the  ox  presents  no  special  features.  Chymification 
is  rapidly  performed.  According  to  Tiedemann  and  Gmelin 
the  omasum  secretes  an  acid  juice,  which  materially  assists 
in  the  conversion  of  the  albuminoids  into  peptones.  We 
can  well  understand  that,  to  enable  the  gastric  juice  to 
act  efficiently,  a  large  amount  of  the  profuse  alkaline  sali- 
vary secretion  must  be  drained  off,  and  the  mass  may  thus 
be  strongly  impregnated  with  acid  throughout  by  the 
action  of  the  omasum. 

The  rumen  is  subject  to  various  disorders  and  lesions, 
some  of  which  are  very  important  from  a  practical  point 
of  view.  They  sometimes  necessitate  operative  inter- 
ference, and  are  very  liable  to  recur. 

Tympany — '^  Hoven"  oe  "  Blown" — Distension  op  the 
Rumen  with  Gas,  known  also  as  fog  sickness,  dew  hloivn, 
and  under  numerous  provincial  terms.  It  is  designated 
by  the  French  meteorization,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
frequent  affections  of  cattle. 

Symptoms. — The  patient  commences  to  exhibit  signs 
of  uneasiness,  rising  and  lying  down  frequently,  and 
kicking  at  the  belly,  for  this  disease  is  very  pain- 
ful. The  rumination  is  suspended  and  food  is  refused. 
There  is  depression,  protrusion  of  the  muzzle,  projection 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM. 


255 


and   congestion  of   the  eyes^  increased    flow  of  saliva,  and 
moaning  at  expiration^  differing  from  tlie  grunt  of  pleuro= 


Fig,  50.     The  rumen  exposed  in  position.     The  organ  is  in  a  state  of  disten- 
sion, and  its  divisions  are  indicated  by  the  letters  a,  h,  c,  and  d. 

pneumonia  in  being  more  prolonged.      The  back  is  arched. 


256  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

and  there  is  marked  swelling  of  the  left  side,  which,  if 
percussed,  is  resonant  like  a  drum,  whence  the  name  tym- 
pany. Distension  of  the  rumen  impedes  the  action  of 
the  diaphragm,  and  increases  unduly  its  bulging  into  the 
thorax.  In  some  cases  there  is  ejection  of  the  contents  of 
the  viscus.  Almost  always  there  are  eructations  of  gases 
with  a  special  odour.  The  bowels  do  not  act,  and  the  in- 
terference with  the  breathing  increases  in  severity  ;  also 
the  brain  becomes  involved  to  a  certain  extent,  the  animal 
loses  sight,  staggers,  becomes  insensible,  and  falls.  Death 
occurs  either  from  rupture  of  the  rumen,  or  from  suffoca- 
tion, or  from  absorption  of  noxious  gases.  The  most 
recent  analysis  of  the  gases  generated  in  these  cases  is 
given  in  the  ^American  Veterinary  Review,'  vol.  i,  p.  100  : 
74*3  carbonic  acid,  23'46  carburetted  hydrogen,  2*2 
nitrogen.  Neither  oxygen  nor  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
could  be  traced  (Reiset).  Guerin,  however,  found  80  per 
cent,  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen. 

The  most  fruitful  cause  of  this  disorder  is  green  food  of 
various  kinds ;  it  generally  occurs  from  the  voracity  with 
which  cattle  that  have  been  kept  on  dry  food  all  the 
winter  consume  fresh  provender.  Hence  it  is  most  pre- 
valent in  the  spring.  It  results  from  feeding  on  any  kind 
of  green  food,  especially  that  collected  when  the  dew  is 
on  the  grass ;  sometimes  from  turnips,  but  generally  only 
when  these  are  frosted  or  rotten.  In  cases  of  choking, 
the  mechanical  impediment  proves  the  cause.  Hoven  is 
present  in  many  cases  of  disorder  of  other  organs.  In 
some  cases  of  prostration  gases  are  evacuated  sponta- 
taneously  from  the  lining  mucous  membrane,  but  this  is 
very  rare.  Again,  sudden  change  of  diet,  of  any  kind, 
may  cause  this  disorder,  or  deficient  secretion  of  saliva 
may  produce  the  same  effect.  The  latter  cause  acts  as  a 
preventive  to  redeglutition,  since  the  proper  formation 
of  the  returning  pellet  requires  liquid  admixture. 
'^  Hoven'^  is  of  two  kinds — acute  and  chronic.  The  latter 
depends  upon  disorders  of  the  digestive  apparatus,  such 
as  a  want  of  tone  of  the  rumen  in  particular,  due  to  a 
similar  state  of  the  system  in  general,  and  also  the  pre- 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  257 

sence  of  disease  of  the  reticulum.  Elimination  of  gas  in 
the  rumen  always  occurs  to  a  certain  extent.  The  causes 
of  excess  in  this  matter  are  either  dependent  primarily  on 
the  state  of  the  stomach  or  on  the  nature  of  the  ingesta. 
Fresh  green  food^  introduced  in  too  large  quantity,  un- 
dergoes fermentation,  for  it  is  placed  under  conditions 
favorable  to  that  process — a  temperature  of  about  100°  and 
moisture.  Thus,  in  the  earliest  stages,  carbonic  anhy- 
dride is  the  gas  given  off ;  but  if  these  matters  remain  too 
long  in  the  stomach  they  decompose,  and  then  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  is  eliminated.  Probably  this  gas  is  given  off 
in  extreme  quantities  at  once,  after  ingestion  of  rotten 
turnips.  Considering  the  conditions  of  the  full  rumen, 
fermentation  must  occur  in  it  if  its  contents  are  not  ex- 
pelled in  due  course  so  that  only  a  small  quantity  remains, 
since  it  seems  the  organ  must  never  be  thoroughly  emp- 
tied. This  residuum,  however,  is  subject  to  almost 
perfect  renewal  with  each  digestion  in  consequence  of 
the  churning  action,  which  ensures  thorough  intermingling 
of  the  gastric  contents. 

Torpidity  of  the  rumen  occurs  in  debilitating  diseases — 
in  fact,  in  most  disorders  of  the  ox ;  also  from  introduc- 
tion of  excessively  cold  material,  as  turnips  which  are 
frosted,  and  grass  covered  with  hoar  frost.  The  gas  can 
escape  in  two  ways — through  the  oesophagus  or  through 
the  omasum — but  this  may  be  prevented  by  oesophageal 
spasm — or  by  contraction  of  the  rumino-reticular  sphincter. 
The  latter  probably  occurs  as  a  result  of  ingestion  of  cold 
food,  but  when  green  food  has  been  passed  into  a  torpid 
rumen  this  probably  accumulates  unduly  about  the  opening 
of  the  first  and  second  stomachs,  and  thus  prevents  both 
the  ingress  of  medicaments  and  the  egress  of  gas  from 
the  deeper  parts  of  the  cavity  of  the  rumen.  In  some  cases 
of  difficult  parturition  considerable  hoven  is  present,  and 
delivery  does  not  take  place  until  this  state  is  relieved. 

Treatment. — The  practitioner  called  in  to  a  case  of 
hoven  probably  finds  the  animal  in  danger  of  suffocation 
from  extreme  abdominal  distension.  When  a  fatal  result 
threatens    every     minute    it    is     generally     advisable     to 

17 


258 


BOYINB    PATHOLOGY. 


Puncture  the  Rumen  as  a  preliminary  and  palliative 
measure.  It  must  be  clearly  understood  that  this  depar- 
ture from  the  rule,  "  Remove  the  cause  and  the  effect  will 


Fig.  51. — The  seat  of  puncture  of  the  rumen  (a). 

cease,"  is  only  an  expedient  for  gaining  time   for  further 
measures. 


PiQ.  52.— Trocar  and  Canula. 

The  instrument  used  is  the  trocar  and  canula,  which 
is  large,  about  eight  inches  long  and  nearly  half  an 
inch  in  diameter.  The  puncture  should  be  made  on  the 
left  side,  at  a  point  equally  distant  from  the  point  of  the 
hip,  the  last  rib,  and  the  lumbar  transverse  processes  (see 
Fig.  51) .  The  tube  is  then  opened  by  removal  of  the  trocar ; 
the  canula  may  be  left  in  as  long  as  required,  and  retained 
by  string.  Sometimes  the  rush  of  gas  suddenly  ceases 
before  much  has  escaped;  this  is  due  to  solid  matter  having 
accumulated  round  the  end  of  the  canula.  This  must  be 
removed  by  insertion  of  a  probe  or  movement  of  the 
canula.  The  length  of  the  tube  allows  for  a  certain 
amount  of  collapse  of  the  rumen  after  puncture.  "  Suck- 
ing calves  are  occasionally  subject  to  hoove.     Little  more 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  259 

will  be  necessary  in  this  case  than  the  introduction  of  the 
probang.  This  distension  c^  the  rumen  arises  from  some 
accidental  and  temporary  cause,,  and  there  is  rarely  any 
continued  manufacture  of  gas  within  the  stomach  ;  some 
calves  become  blown  from  the  trick  they  frequently  have 
of  sucking  each  others  pizzle  or  ear''  (Youatt) . 

In  cases  of  choking,  the  probang  must  next  be  passed, 
and  every  obstacle  removed.  The  tube  should  be  made 
to  penetrate  into  the  rumen,  and  thus  tend  to  remove 
mechanically  any  food  accumulated  round  the  cardia. 
Through  it,  or  directly  through  the  cannla,  may  be  in- 
troduced some  agent  which  will  stimulate  the  torpid 
rumen  and  chemically  condense  the  gases  pent  up  in  it ; 
sometimes  these  will  rush  out  with  force  through  the 
probang  and  the  relieved  organ  regain  its  tone;  more 
often  medicinal  agents  are  required.  Compounds  of  am- 
monia are  most  valuable  in  these  cases.  Liquor  Ammoniaa 
or  the  Spiritus  Aromaticus  (of  course  largely  diluted)  form 
with  the  carbonic  anhydride  the  ammonium  carbonate, 
which  is  a  useful  stimulant.  ^'  Chloride  of  lime ''  is 
usually  to  hand,  and  acts  on  the  carburetted  and  sul- 
phuretted hydrogens  which  are  present,  forming  hydro- 
chloric acid.  Any  excess  of  the  bleaching  powder  acts 
as  an  arrester  of  putrefaction  and  fermentation.  This 
agent  is  available,  therefore,  either  in  the  early  or  late 
stages.  The  sulphites  and  hyposulphite  of  soda  also  serve 
to  condense  the  gases  which  are  causing  over-distension. 
Some  farmers  practise  throwing  cold  water  over  the  ab- 
domen of  an  animal  which  is  "  blown  -"  this,  of  course, 
acts  by  causing  reflex  contraction  of  the  rumen,  which 
might  lead  to  rupture  if  the  openings  were  occluded  and 
thus  the  escape  of  gas  prevented.  Cases  have  been 
relieved  by  means  of  the  stomach-pump,  cold  water  being 
thrown  in  through  the  probang;  nature  herself  adopts 
the  method  of  relief  by  vomition  in  some  cases.  Almost 
always  eructations  take  place,  but  the  amount  of  gas  thus 
removed  does  not  equal  in  amount  that  which  is  con- 
stantly being  set  free.  The  administration  of  stimu- 
lants and  removal  of    accumulated  gas  generally  requires 


260  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

to  be  accomplished  several  times,  and  early  administra- 
tions of  a  cathartic  dose  will  facilitate  perfect  recovery. 
In  chronic  cases,  small  doses  of  nux  vomica  have  been 
recommended,  as  especially  valuable  where  the  disorder 
depends  on  defective  nervous  energy.  In  other  instances, 
iron  or  vegetable  general  tonics  are  required,  but  the  most 
important  indication  is  to  regulate  the  diet  as  a  preven- 
tive means  both  for  animals  which  have  suffered  from  this 
disorder  and  those  which  have  not.   It  is  very  liable  to  recur. 

Impaction  op  the  Eumen — distension  of  the  rumen  with 
solid  matters — jplenalvia — "  grain-sick  " — "  maw-hound  '* 
— a  pathological  condition  similar  to  that  last  noticed,  but 
differing  in  the  urgency  of  its  symptoms,  and  in  its  method 
of  treatment,  depends  upon  the  introduction  of  solid 
matters  in  such  amount  as  to  paralyse  the  organ  by  over- 
distension. Some  foods  seem  more  liable  to  produce  this 
disorder  than  others,  as  grain  food,  chaff,  potatoes ;  but 
anything  particularly  palatable  to  the  animals  may  be 
thus  taken  in  excess  if  placed  too  freely  before  a  beast. 

Symptoms. — As  in  tympany,  there  is  swelling  on  the 
left  side  of  the  abdomen.  The  animal  is  dull  and  suffers 
pain,  the  bowels  are  confined,  and  the  pulse  small  and 
quick;  but  these  symptoms  are  less  urgent,  appear  more 
gradually,  and  the  abdominal  swelling  is  not  resonant 
on  percussion,  and  it  pits  on  pressure,  and  when  the 
animal  lies  down  it  does  so  on  the  right  side.  Also  eruc- 
tations do  not  occur.  The  symptoms,  later  on,  resemble 
those  of  hoven,  which  sets  in  as  a  complication ;  then  the 
respiration  becomes  affected;  there  is  a  moan  on  expira- 
tion, grinding  of  the  teeth,  persistent  standing,  with  muzzle 
protruded  and  arched  back  ;  or  Alvitis,  inflammation  of  the 
rumen,  may  set  in  when  the  general  febrile  symptoms  for 
the  first  time  manifest  themselves,  in  addition  to  those 
already  present ;  also  the  animal  will  manifest  pain  when 
pressure  is  made  on  the  left  side. 

Treatment  must  be  directed  to  the  removal  of  some  of 
the  impacted  food-mass,  and  also  to  restoration  of  tone  to 
the  over-distended  walls  of  the  viscus.  To  increase  our 
knowledge  of  the  conditions  in  the  case  we  must  pass  the 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  261 

probang,  by  whicli  means  any  gas  present  may  be  drawn 
off,  and  to  a  certain  extent  the  degree  of  distension 
may  be  determined.  Cases  have  been  cured  by  throwing 
in  water,  whereby  vomition  is  brought  about,  but  this 
is  not  always  successful.  When  the  distension  is  not 
excessive  a  stimulant  with  a  cathartic  must  next  be  ad- 
ministered. Oil  is  particularly  useful  to  lubricate  the  pas- 
sages and  soften  the  masses  of  food.  Manipulation  applied 
externally  over  the  food-mass  is  sometimes  beneficial,  and 
exercise  increases  tone,  but  its  influence  on  the  rumen  is 
doubtful.  These  measures  failing,  before  the  animal  begins 
to  sink  exhausted,  or  the  brain  become  congested,  or 
alvitis  supervene,  Ruminotomy  {^'  paunching'^)  must  be 
performed.  The  animal  is  placed  with  the  right  side 
against  a  wall,  just  at  the  end,  so  that  the  tail  may  be 
held  to  the  right.  The  nose  is  held,  and  pressure  on  the 
left  shoulder  and  hip  prevents  the  patient  from  moving 
too  much  to  the  left.  An  incision  is  then  to  be  made 
about  the  seat  of  puncture  of  the  rumen,  and  carried 
directly  downwards  for  about  six  inches.  This  first  in- 
cision is  made  through  the  skin  and  outer  layer  of  muscle ; 
the  inner  layer  and  peritoneum  must  then  be  divided,  and 
so  the  rumen  exposed.  A  slight  incision  having  been 
made  in  this  above,  and  the  edges  grasped  with  hooks, 
they  may  be  either  retained  in  firm  grasp  by  means  of  the 
hooks,  being  drawn  through  the  wound  in  the  abdominal 
wall  as  the  incision  in  the  rumen  is  prolonged  downwards, 
or  the  two  wounds  may  be  stitched  together  temporarily. 
In  the  latter  case  a  handkerchief  may  be  introduced 
through  the  wound  and  spread  out  over  the  lower  part, 
on  which  any  droppings  of  ingesta  may  fall.  With 
his  hand  the  operator  then  removes  the  accumulated 
mass  until  only  a  small  quantity  of  soft  material  re- 
mains in  the  organ.  It  is  also  advisable  to  ascertain 
the  state  of  the  reticulum  and  omasum  as  much  as  pos- 
sible. Some  then  inject  a  stimulant  cathartic  dose  into 
the  organ,  but  this,  when  necessary,  can  be  given  through 
the  mouth.  The  wound  in  the  rumen  must  then  be  closed 
by  carbolised  catgut  sutures,  care  being   taken  that  the 


262  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

edges  are  inverted.  The  muscular  wound  may  be  retained 
also  by  catgut,  or,  preferably,  metallic  sutures,  the  ends  of 
which  protrude  through  the  external  wound,  which  is  then 
similarly  closed.  Where  feasible  the  operation  should  be 
performed  under  the  carbolic  spray.  The  wound  generally 
heals  readily,  the  rumen  becomes  attached  to  the  abdominal 
walls  in  most  cases,  therefore  it  is  advisable,  after  the 
operation,  to  fatten  the  patient  for  the  butcher  as  soon  as 
possible.  Sometimes  it  is  found  necessary  to  reopen  the 
wound,  as  in  a  good  case  recorded  by  that  able  and  re- 
spected cattle  pathologist,  Mr.  John  Steele,  of  Biggar,  in 
the  '  Veterinarian,'  1834,  p.  98.  After-treatment  consists 
in  administration  of  stimulant  aromatics  and  feeding  the 
animal  on  soft  diet  until  the  rumen  has  thoroughly  re- 
gained its  tone.  When  alvitis  has  set  in  the  chances  of 
recovery  are  materially  reduced,  and  after  the  operation  of 
ruminotomy,  which  must  be  resorted  to,  even  though  the 
conditions  present  render  it  an  affair  of  desperation, 
external  stimulation  and  administration  of  febrifuges  in- 
ternally must  be  persevered  in,  while  the  cathartic  dose 
is  assisted  by  enemas,  and  the  general  measures  of  nursing 
are  to  be  carefully  attended  to.  Fortunately,  alvitis  is 
rare.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  peritonitis  of  a 
diffused  character  seems  never  to  result  from  this  opera- 
tion, unless  the  matter  from  the  rumen  has  been  allowed 
to  escape  into  the  peritoneal  sac.  It  is  wonderful  to  see 
the  extent  to  which  the  peritoneal  membrane  of  ruminants 
may  be  operated  on  with  impunity. 

Rupture  op  the  Rumen  sometimes  takes  place  as  a 
result  of  primary  hoven  or  gaseous  accumulation  in  cases 
of  plenalvia.  Sometimes  wounds  penetrate  the  walls  of 
this  organ,  and  it  is  possible  for  rupture  to  occur  as  a 
result  of  injury  from  the  animal  falling  in  an  advanced 
case  of  plenalvia.  Puncture  of  its  walls  may  be  due  to 
ulceration  resulting  from  the  presence  of  irritant  foreign 
bodies,  which  act  either  chemically  or  mechanically.  In  these 
cases  escape  of  partially  elaborated  food  takes  place,  either 
into  the  main  peritoneal  sac  or  into  omentum  major.  The 
result  is  peritonitis,  but   before   this  sets   in   the    animal 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  263 

may  die,  the  symptoms  being  those  of  abdominal  pain 
and  collapse. 

FoEEiGN  Bodies  in  the  Rumen  and  Reticulum  are  of 
various  kinds.  The  most  extraordinary  are  those  which 
the  animal  has  ingested  in  consequence  of  depravity  of 
appetite.  Sometimes  these  are  large  and  of  peculiar  form, 
since  they  become  variously  encrusted.  These  give  rise  to 
indigestion,  such  as  is  frequently  seen  in  cattle,  irregular 
rumination,  increased  depravity  of  appetite,  and  an  un- 
thrifty condition;  sometimes  also  vomition  is  present.  They 
are  also  said  to  act  deleteriously  by  becoming  entangled 
in  the  oesophageal  groove  and  the  stomachic  openings. 
Sharp  bodies  penetrate  the  walls  of  the  viscus,  and  their 
course  is  indicated  by  inflammatory  changes.  This  is 
found  to  be  the  case  most  frequently  in  the  reticulum. 
Passage  of  needles,  &c.,  from  that  stomach  into  the  heart 
has  been  already  noticed.  Yomition,  tympany,  and  sym- 
ptoms of  abdominal  pain,  as  well  as  intermittent  hoven 
and  general  signs  of  anaemia,  are  present  in  these  cases. 

Parasites  and  calculi  (especially  those  consisting  essen- 
tially of  hair  concretions)  are  sometimes  found  in  the 
rumen.  Of  parasites  Amphistoma  conicum  is  remarkable 
as  being  somewhat  similar  to  the  papillae  in  the  deep 
saccules  of  the  rumen.  Certain  Taenise  have  been  found 
in  this  cavity.  Also  Gysticercus  tenuicolUs  is  sometimes 
found  attached  to  its  outer  surface. 

*'  Hair  Balls  '*  are  of  considerable  interest.  Cattle 
when  in  health  delight  in  licking  themselves  or  one 
another,  and  the  roughened  condition  of  their  tongues 
causes  a  considerable  removal  of  hairs  which  are  swal- 
lowed, and  in  the  rumen  are  intermingled  with  food 
particles  and  fibres,  with  which  they  are  bound  to- 
gether by  mucus.  The  movement  of  the  stomach  give 
these  a  rounded  form,  and  a  definite  spiral  direction  to 
the  hairs.  When  several  are  present  they  assume  the 
form  of  polygons  with  rounded  edges.  These  concre- 
tions are  light  and  vary  much  in  size.  Some  have 
been  observed  which  weighed  between  six  and  seven 
pounds.     Generally  they  weigh  only  a  few  ounces.     Their 


264  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

structure  is  laminated,  and  almost  invariably  tliey  are 
arranged  around  a  small  piece  of  metal  or  a  stone  which 
has  been  swallowed  as  a  nucleus.  These  bodies  have  little 
pathological  importance ;  they  have  been  known  to  choke 
an  animal  during  regurgitation.  They  are  passed  up  into 
the  mouth,  and  thus  rejected  when  of  moderate  size.  It 
is  doubtful  if  they  ever  pass  from  the  rumen  into  the 
omasum.  Probably  they  do  not,  though  '^  hair  balls  "  are 
found  in  the  abomasum,  as  we  shall  see.  Sometimes  they 
are  coated  with  a  thin  layer  of  lime  salts,  with  which  they 
are  more  or  less  impregnated  throughout.  Finally,  they 
are  sometimes  present  in  very  young  animals.  They  are 
termed  ^gagropiles. 

Hernia  op  the  Rumen  and  Reticulum  sometimes  occurs, 
sjid  fistula  of  the  rumen  have  enabled  Continental  observers, 
more  especially  Flourens  and  Colin,  to  accurately  deter- 
mine the  conditions  of  this  viscus  and  its  contents  during 
rumination. 

Impaction  op  the  Omasum,  known  as  "  Staggers/' 
"  Vertigo/'  "  Fog  sickness/'  ^^  Olue  hound/'  &c. — This  is 
by  most  practitioners  considered  a  very  frequent  and 
serious  disorder,  but  Professor  Williams  has  thus  expressed 
himself  in  his  '  Principles  and  Practice  of  Veterinary 
Medicine  i' — "  This  is  a  very  popular  disease,  some  writers 
ascribing  every  case  of  constipation  to  impaction  of  the 
omasum,  basing  their  conclusions  upon  the  fact  that  the 
contents  of  this  viscus  are  in  a  dry  and  hard  condition 
when  examined  after  death;  but  seeing  that  this  is  its 
natural  state,  and  that,  when  animals  have  died  from  what 
appeared  to  be  obstinate  constipation,  its  contents  have 
been  found  moister  than  natural,  I  have  arrived  at  the 
conclusion  that  what  is  supposed  to  be  impaction  of  the 
third  stomach  is  in  reality  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  true  stomach  —  abomasitis,  or  true 
gastric  inflammation.^'  Undoubtedly  the  professor  is 
right  in  denying  that  all  cases  of  constipation  depend 
upon  this  condition,  and  he  has  done  the  profession  good 
service,  by  drawing  attention  forcibly  to  the  fact  that  the 
hard  condition  of  food  between  the  laminae  of  the  omasum 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  265 

and  a  separation  of  its  epithelium  on  the  surface  of  the 
cakes  are  neither  of  them  solely  due  to  inflammation  or 
impaction.  The  condition  of  the  contents  of  the  omasum 
post  mortem  depends  very  much  on  previous  conditions  of 
the  viscus  and  the  nature  of  the  diet.  If  the  organ  has  been 
inactive  food  material  will  accumulate  in  it^  as  in  any  other 
inert  saccular  dilatation  of  the  oesophagus,  and  that  to  a 
very  great  extent,  and  the  matter  accumulated  will  not 
be  subjected  to  such  firm  muscular  contraction  as  is 
always  supposed  to  occur  and  make  the  contents  hard. 
Rigor  mortis,  on  the  contrary,  tends  to  bring  about  this 
contraction,  and,  no  doubt,  solely  on  this,  a  dry  condition 
of  the  contents  of  the  omasum  often  depends.  Never- 
theless, we  must  allow  that  impaction  of  this  organ  occurs 
as  a  result  of  the  consumption  of  indigestible  materials, 
such  as  autumn  grass  which  has  been  allowed  to  remain 
in  the  pasture  until  spring,  straw,  and  washed  hay,  also 
the  coarse  and  indigestible  herbage  sometimes  found  in 
old  pasture  with  many  trees  about.  Astringent  herbage, 
as  heath,  has  a  somewhat  similar  effect. 

The  Symptoms  found  in  these  cases  are  : — ^At  first  the 
frequent  passage  of  small  quantities  of  hard  glazed  faeces, 
succeeded  by  obstinate  constipation.  The  patient  stands 
persistently,  and  can  scarcely  be  moved.  Its  pulse  is 
hard  and  frequent.  It  is  dull,  and  evidently  suffering  from 
acute  abdominal  pain.  There  is  the  grunt  indicative  of  this, 
which  has  caused  the  disease  to  be  mistaken  for  pleuro- 
pneumonia. General  signs  of  disorder  are  also  present. 
Later,  the  brain  generally  becomes  affected,  and  the  sym- 
ptoms are  considerably  modified,  there  being  muscular 
tremors  over  the  surface  of  the  body,  staring  condition  of 
the  eyes,  which  are  insensible  to  light,  staggering  gait, 
terminating  in  paralysis,  or  wild  rushing  about,  pro- 
trusion of  the  tongue,  which  becomes  much  swollen. 
Tympany  often  occurs  as  a  complication.  The  urine, 
too,  is  sometimes  mingled  with  blood.  Youatt  has  a 
theory  that  the  hard  distended  omasum  pressed  on  vena 
portae  against  the  liver,  and  thus  prevented  return  of 
blood  from  the  intestines,  which  brings  about  a  determina- 


266  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

tion  of  blood  to  the  brain,  but  by  most  observers  tbe 
nervous  complications  are  considered  analogous  to  those 
seen  in  "  Stomach  Staggers ''  of  the  horse.  Sometimes 
the  disease  of  the  omasum  assumes  an  inflammatory 
character,  and  the  general  signs  of  fever  are  marked. 
Omasitis  does  not  seem  to  take  place  under  any  other 
circumstances. 

On  post-mortem  examination  a  congested  condition  of 
the  lining  membrane  of  the  abomasum  and  duodenum  is 
generally  found,  which  may  seem  to  support  Professor 
Williams^  view,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  urged  that 
this  depends  on  the  large  cathartic  doses  generally  resorted 
to  in  the  treatment  of  these  cases.  Ecchymoses  some- 
times may  be  noted  in  these  congested  parts  as  well  as 
in  the  omasum,  where  the  vascular  structure  of  the  laminae 
is  exposed  by  separation  of  the  epithelium  in  layers  on  the 
impacted  cakes  of  food,  which  may  be  either  hard  and  dry, 
or  moist  and  soft.  There  is  sometimes  congestion  of  the 
brain  and  its  membranes,  and  of  some  parts  of  the  spinal 
cord.  Cases  of  this  disorder  may  last  a  few  days,  or  for 
two  or  three  weeks. 

Treatment. — Bleeding  has  been  recommended,  and  seems 
advisable  when  the  brain  is  markedly  involved.  The 
majority  of  practitioners  rely  upon  strong  cathartic  doses, 
especially  hydragogue  agents.  Thus,  gamboge  is  suggested 
as  a  valuable  remedy  in  this  disorder.  Croton  oil  is  pre- 
ferred by  some.  Generally,  however,  a  mixture  of  sul- 
phate of  magnesia  with  aloes  solution  is  used,  the  latter 
being  supposed  to  involve  the  stomachs  in  the  catharsis, 
whereas  Epsom  salts  act  almost  solely  in  the  bowels.  We 
are  recommended  to  repeat  the  dose  in  twelve  hours, 
if  no  appreciable  effect  has  resulted,  and  to  give  oil  as  an 
adjunct  in  the  interval.  We  must  consider  that  we  have 
either  a  relaxed  organ  to  restore  to  tone,  or,  less  frequently, 
an  organ  in  a  state  of  spasm,  to  deal  with.  Thus,  we  can 
easily  understand  how  Professor  Strangeway^s  treatment 
of  oil  with  sedatives,  followed  by  sulphate  of  magnesia, 
quinine,  and  sulphuric  acid,  proved  beneficial  in  restoring 
the  tone  of  the  omasum,  after  lubricating  it  and  the  other 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  267 

parts  of  the  oesopliageal  passage  with  oil,  and  stimulating 
them  with  a  mild  cathartic.  Such  treatment  seems  most 
satisfactory  in  simple  impaction,  and  where  actual  inflam- 
mation is  present  should  be  supplemented  by  external 
stimulation.  Enemas  ought  to  be  regularly  administered 
and  the  animal  carefully  nursed.  The  thirst  which  is 
present  in  the  inflammatory  stage  may  be  relieved  by 
nitrated  water  ad  libitum, 

A  remarkable  case  of  atrophy,  with  almost  total  dis- 
appearance of  the  lamina  of  the  omasum,  was  recorded  in 
the  '  Yeterinarian/  1833,  p.  454. 

Abomasitis,  Inflammation  of  the  True  Stomach, — If  the 
views  of  Professor  Williams  are  accepted,  the  account  of 
the  impaction  of  the  omasum  as  given  above  is  to  be 
transferred  to  this  heading.  In  this  view  he  seems  to 
follow  and  coincide  with  Professor  Dick's  opinions.  It  is 
certain,  however,  that  we  get  abomasitis  in  some  cases 
of  poisoning,  and  according  to  some  authors,  an  idio- 
pathic form,  in  which  no  such  symptoms  of  cerebral 
disorder  are  present,  only  those  of  acute  fever,  severe 
abdominal  pain,  and  "  a  curious  stretching  out  of  the  fore 
limbs,  with  the  brisket  almost  to  the  ground ''  (Youatt) . 
The  causes  of  this,  apart  from  poison,  are  not  well 
ascertained,  for  certainly  the  idiopathic  form  is  very 
infrequent. 

Post-mortem  lesions  comprise  congestive  redness,  with 
considerable  production  of  flaky  mucus,  and  sometimes 
blood,  intermingled  with  the  contents  of  the  organ,  the 
duodenum  being  generally  almost  equally  involved. 

In  this  mucus  are  often  found  ^'  hair  balls,^^  which  con- 
sist almost  wholly  of  hair  matted  together  by  mucus. 
These  may  have  passed  directly  from  the  reticulum  through 
the  omasum,  or  during  redeglutition  have  made  their  way 
at  once  into  the  fourth  stomach  ;  or,  as  is  perhaps  more 
probable,  have  been  formed  by  the  churning  action  of  the 
stomach  in  which  they  are  found. 

We  find  one  case  of  Impaction  of  the  Ahomasum  on  record. 
We  can  easily  understand  that  the  complex  and  thorough 
preparative  apparatus  at  the  lower  extremity  of  the  oeso- 


268  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

phagus,  will  prevent  sucli  a  disorder  from  being  of 
frequent  occurrence.  Occasionally  the  omasum  and  abo- 
masum  become  displaced.  Thus^  in  the  '  Edinburgh  Veteri- 
nary Review,'  vol.  iv,  p.  139,  a  case  is  recorded  in  which 
both  these  organs  became  dislocated  into  the  chest. 
Bvjpture  of  the  Abomasum  also  occasionally  takes  place, 
due  to  external  injury,  or,  as  in  the  case  recorded  in  the 
^  Veterinarian,'  vol.  xvi,  p.  269,  to  extensive  ulceration. 

Parasites  are  sometimes  seen  in  this  organ,  and  Bujpture 
of  the  Blood-vessels  of  the  Stomach  sometimes  occurs  in 
the  ox. 

Various  forms  of  Indigestion,  of  ill-ascertained  cause, 
which  may  be  included  under  the  headings  bulimia,  pica, 
and  obscure  chronic  disorders  of  the  digestive  apparatus, 
are  not  unfrequent  in  cattle.  Certain  nervous  conditions, 
as  those  which  accompany  the  pregnant  state,  sometimes 
seem  the  sole  cause  of  these,  whereas,  in  other  cases, 
when  it  is  deemed  advisable  to  hand  the  animal  over  to 
the  butcher,  or  gradually  increasing  anaemia  leads  to 
death,  on  post-mortem  examination  are  found  organic 
changes  of  long  standing  and  unusual  characters,  such 
as  cancerous  disease  of  the  organ  and  Stricture  of  the 
Pylorus.  In  the  latter  disorder  there  is  gradual  emaci- 
ation and  a  foetid  condition  of  the  breath ;  it  is  not 
infrequent  in  cattle.  Cruzel  attributes  one  form  of 
indigestion  to  too  frequent  ingestion  of  too  large  draughts 
of  water. 

Perhaps  some  of  these  cases  of  indigestion  are  due  to 
dyspepsia  (pica),  induced  by  irregular  and  bad  feeding, 
want  of  exercise,  exposure,  or  deficient  sanitary  arrange- 
ments. Sometimes  also  by  the  presence  of  parasites  or 
other  foreign  bodies.  The  animal  becomes  unthrifty,  as 
denoted  by  the  dry,  harsh,  staring  coat,  depraved  or  irregu- 
lar appetite,  irregular  and  imperfect  rumination,  a  tendency 
to  tympany,  flatulence,  and  torpidity  of  the  bowels,  a  tucked- 
up  appearance,  and  rapid  loss  of  flesh.  In  such  cases  treat- 
ment must  comprise  change  of  diet  and  of  general  sur- 
rounding conditions,  and  the  administration  of  stimulant 
tonics  after  the  bowels  have  been  cleared  out  by  a  brisk 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM, 


269 


cathartic   dose.      Small    doses    of  liquor     arsenicalis    are 
admissible. 

In  dealing  with  the  effects  of  irritant  poisons^  we  shall 
have  to  touch  upon  Oastro- enteritis  as  it  especially  occurs 
in  adults,  but  there  is  a  disease  known  under  this  name 
to  which  calves  are  subject.  In  the  young  animal  the 
abomasum  is  the  largest  of  the  stomachs,  and  it  is  only 
after  weaning  that  the  rumen  comes  to  so  greatly  ex- 
ceed the  remainder  of  the  gastric  mass.  The  milk 
accumulates  in  the  fourth  stomach  and  undergoes  coagu- 
lation, after  which  it  is  digested.  For  the  proper  per- 
formance of  these  processes  it  is  necessary  that  the  milk 
be  taken  in  moderate  quantity,  and  be  of  good  quality. 


Fig.  53. — Stomachs  of  the  calf.     a.  Rumen,    c.  Abomasum   (considerably 
the  larger).     (Simonds.) 

Pail-fed  calves  are  apt  to  obtain  too  much  milk,  also 
animals  brought  up  by  a  foster-mother  are  apt  to  indulge 
in  excess  in  this  respect,  and  disorder  is  promoted  by 
want  of  the  healthy  stimulus  which  exercise  is  to  diges- 
tive processes.  Thus,  the  stomach  becomes  laden  with  a 
hard  mass  of  curd,  which  proves  a  source  of  irritation, 
and  causes  death  from  the  effects  of  impaction.  Inflam- 
mation sets  in,  extends  to  the  intestines,  and  thus  gives 
rise  to  an  acrid  irritating  discharge,  whence  the  disorder 
is  termed  *'  wJiite  scour  '^  or  "  shit.''  Another  form  of 
accumulation  of  material  in  excess  in  the  abomasum  is 
seen  in  partially  weaned  calves,  when  the  first  and  third 
compartments  have  not  been  able  to  properly  prepare  hay 


270  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

and  such  ofher  food  material  for  digestion  in  the  true 
stomach.  Here,  as  often  in  the  former  case,  obstinate 
constipation  sets  in.  Usually  in  such  cases  as  are  charac- 
terised by  diarrhoea,  resort  is  had  at  once  to  the  sheep 
and  calves'  cordial  (see  page  81).  This  is  not  always  good 
treatment.  It  is  preferable  to  first  administer  oil,  whether 
constipation  or  laxity  is  present,  and  it  has  been  found 
that  alkaline  drinks  in  considerable  quantity  are  most 
useful  in  breaking  up  the  mass  of  curd  and  also  in  check- 
ing the  excess  of  acid  and  acrid  secretion  which  gives 
rise  to  disorder  of  the  bowels.  At  the  same  time  carmi- 
native agents  may  be  given  to  promote  the  digestive 
processes.  When  the  constipation  gives  way,  and  as  is 
sometimes  the  case,  is  succeeded  by  profuse  diarrhoea,  it 
will  still  be  advisable  to  give  cordials  to  assist  these 
natural  processes,  and  at  the  same  time  stimulant  tonic 
doses  will  prove  beneficial.  As  a  change  of  diet,  Dobson's 
recommendation  of  substituting  linseed  gruel  for  half  of 
the  allowance  of  milk  may  be  adopted. 

The  Intestines  of  the  Ox  are  from  twenty  to  twenty-two 
times  the  length  of  the  body,  and  entend  for  an  average 
distance  of  150  feet,  of  which  120  feet  are  small.  Though 
thus  half  as  long  again  as  those  of  the  horse,  they  are  much 
smaller  in  calibre.  The  duodenum  is  short ;  the  floating 
portion  of  the  small  intestine  is  arranged  along  the  free 
margin  of  the  mesentery,  being  here  thrown  into  complex 
convolutions  by  the  sudden  considerable  increase  in  extent 
of  the  mesentery  close  against  its  free  margin.  Besides 
the  usual  structures  (the  mesenteric  glands  being  remark- 
ably near  the  free  margin  rather  than  the  root),  the 
mesentery  contains  the  major  portion  of  the  large 
intestines. 

The  GcBcum  is  club-shaped,  largest  at  its  free  extremity, 
and  gradually  tapering  until  it  gains  the  size  of  the  com- 
mencement portion  of  the  colon.  It  is  not  puckered,  for 
it  is  devoid  of  muscular  bands.  Also  it  hangs  freely 
downwards  and  somewhat  backwards. 

The  Colon  is  double  throughout  the  greater  part  of  its 
course,    and  arranged   in   a    spiral   manner    between    the 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM. 


271 


layers  of   the   mesentery.       It    is   very    small,    devoid   of 
puckerings,  and  has  no  special  peritoneal  investment.      It 


Fig.  54. — The  position  of  the  intestines  of  ihe  ox,  with  the  method  adopted 
for  the  collection  of  chyle  for  physiological  purposes.  (From  Colin, 
*  Physiologic  des  animaux  domestiques.') 


Fig.  55. — Intestines,  large  and  small,  viewed  from  the  left  side. 


272 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


enlarges  somewliat  to  terminate  in  a  fairly  long  and  straight 
rectum. 

The  glands  of  Peyer  of  the  ox  are  elongated  and 
very  large,  ranging  from  four  inches  to  twelve  inches  in 
length,  and  from  about  half  an  inch  to  one  inch  in  width. 
Thus  we  see  that  food  which  has  been  thoroughly  elabo- 
rated in  the  stomach  passes  into  a  long  but  narrow 
passage,  not  very  capacious,  but  arranged  so  as  to 
secure  contact  of  the  contents  with  a  very  considerable 
extent  of  surface,  so  that  thorough  absorption  of  useful 
matters  takes  place.  However,  at  the  end  of  its  passage 
through  the  intestine  useless  excreted  matter  is  expelled 
as  faeces,  having  about  75  per  cent,  of  water,  therefore 
markedly  pultaceous,  varying  in  this  respect  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  diet  and  method  of  feeding.     As  com- 


FiG.  56. — Intestines,  large  and  small,  viewed  from  the  right  side. 


pared  with  the  intestines  of  the  horse,  those  of  the  ox 
are  less  important  digestive  organs,  and  are,  therefore, 
not  so  frequently  involved  in  disease ;  their  disorders  are 
not   so  urgent.     We   have   already   seen   how   numerous 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  273 

and  fatal  are  tlie  diseases  of  the  stomaclis  of  the  ox.  The 
ordinary  seat  of  indigestion  in  the  horse  is  the  bowels  ; 
in  them  gases  are  liberated  and  tympany  occurs^  in  them 
impactions  take  place  and  ruptures,  they  also  are  gene- 
rally the  parts  dislocated  in  abdominal  herniaQ.  "We  find 
that  these  lesions  and  disorders  affect  the  stomachs  of  the 
ox.  Lastly,  improperly  prepared  food,  or  alimentary 
matter  in  excess  or  of  bad  quality,  acts  on  the  stomachs 
of  the  ox,  on  the  intestines  of  the  horse. 

Colic,  defined  as  '"'any  abdominal  pain  not  due  to 
inflammation,"  is  capable  of  more  exact  limitation.  It 
is  distinguished  by  certain  symptoms,  which  are  more  or 
less  marked  in  other  abdominal  disorders,  and  are  known 
as  '^  colicky  pains."  The  animal  ceases  to  feed  and  rumi- 
nate for  a  time,  and  the  pulse  during  the  paroxysm  be- 
comes full  and  bounding  ;  moaning,  grinding  of  the  teeth, 
striking  the  belly  with  the  hind  feet,  extreme  restlessness, 
indicated  by  movement  and  constant  rising  and  lying 
down,  are  present,  and  the  animal  may  turn  his  head 
round,  and  bring  the  muzzle  against  the  seat  of  pain ; 
there  is  sweating  and  frequent  passage  of  urine  in  small 
quantities,  or  of  small  dry  portions  of  feeces.  Hernias  of 
various  kinds,  strangulations,  and  impactions  of  the 
bowels,  as  well  as  certain  disorders  of  liver,  stomach,  or 
urinary  apparatus,  may  be  the  cause  of  this.  In  such 
cases  other  signs  may  be  present,  and  enable  us  to  complete 
our  diagnosis.  But,  failing  these,  we  may  attribute  the 
signs-  of  disorder  to  Simple  Colic,  spasm  of  the  howels. 
Then  the  pains  are  paroxysmal,  and  during  the  intervals 
the  patient  seems  in  thorough  health ;  but  the  pain  is  very 
acute  while  it  lasts.  This  is  sometimes  brought  on  by 
changes  of  diet,  the  passage  of  imperfectly  prepared 
food  from  the  stomach,  and,  it  is  said,  ingestion  of  very 
cold  or  hard  water.  Reflex  colic  may  occur,  but  we  are 
not  assured  of  this;  indeed,  spasmodic  colic  is  not  fre- 
quent in  the  ox,  for  obvious  reasons.  In  cases  of  this 
nature  a  saline  cathartic;  with  stimulant  cordial  agents, 
should  be  at  once  administered.  This  will  generally 
prove  effectual,  and  no  further  resort  to  antispasmodics 

18 


274  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

required  ;  if  necessary,  these  may  be  given,  but  an  obsti- 
nate case  is  probably  more  complicated  than  was  at  first 
supposed.  Flatulent  colic  also  is  not  frequent ;  it  may  be 
diagnosed  from  the  spasmodic  form  by  less  urgency,  but 
more  persistent  character  of  the  symptoms,  by  gaseous 
eructations  and  emissions  of  flatus  per  anum,  and  some- 
times by  tympanic  distension  of  the  right  side  of  the 
abdomen.  In  such  cases  ammonia  stimulants  must  pre- 
ferably be  administered  with  the  carthartic  dose.  The 
patient  should  be  walked  about,  and  friction  applied  to 
the  right  side.  These  seldom  prove  very  obstinate  cases. 
We  insist  on  the  cathartic  because  it  tends  to  remove  the 
cause,  and  its  administration  is  not  open  to  the  objections 
urged  against  prompt  adoption  of  such  a  course  of  treat- 
ment of  colic  in  the  horse.  In  all  cases  of  abdominal  dis- 
order manual  exploration  of  the  rectum  should  be  made, 
and  enemas  utilised  to  facilitate  supervention  of  catharsis. 
We  must  now  proceed  to  some  other  causes  of  colic. 

Impaction,  or  Distension  with  Obstruction,  op  the 
Bowels  may  be  due  to  calculous  concretions,  bodies 
which  have  gained  entry  through  relaxed  vigilance  of  the 
gastric  protective  apparatus,  also  tumours  of  various  kinds, 
among  which  may  be  enumerated  the  enormous  swellings 
of  the  mesenteric  glands  of  a  case,  of  which  Mr.  Brown  of 
Melton  gives  an  account  in  the  '  Veterinarian'  for  February, 
1830.  The  tumour  weighed  160  lbs.,  and  had  a  scirrhous 
character.  In  one  case  a  potato  became  impacted  in  the 
colon  ('  Edinburgh  Veterinary  Eeview,'  vol.  iv,  p.  212)  ; 
in  another,  a  tumour  of  a  non-malignant  character  was 
found  in  the  duodenum  ('Veterinarian,'  vol.  xxii,  p.  617). 

Calculi  in  the  intestines  are  neither  large,  solid,  nor 
frequent.  They  consist  of  concentric  layers,  and  are  found 
in  the  large  intestine ;  they  are  neither  so  large  nor  so 
prejudicial  as  those  of  the  horse. 

Intussusception,  or  Invagination,  is  the  folding  of  one 
portion  of  intestine  within  the  canal  of  a  preceding  or  suc- 
ceeding portion,  the  result  of  simultaneous  distension  of 
the  investing,  and  spasm  of  the  enclosed  portion  with  irre- 
gular or  suddenly  reversed  peristaltic  action.     It  is  rare 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  275 

in  the  ox,  both  on  account  of  the  special  structural  pecu- 
liarities of  the  intestines,  and  because  of  the  comparative 
rarity  of  colic^  of  which  it  is  a  sequela.  The  caecum  is  the 
most  frequent  seat  of  intussusception  in  the  ox ;  it  may 
become  completely  fixed  in  the  colon.  The  mesentery  is  in 
some  cases  torn  away  from  the  involved  part,  in  others 
remains  intact. 

Symptoms  are  those  of  colic  which  lose  their  intermit- 
tency  without  access  of  fever.  The  patient  retains  the 
recumbent  position,  looks  at  and  strikes  the  flank,  and 
either  there  is  obstinate  constipation  or  a  discharge  of 
blood  per  anum.  The  rectum  seems  very  liable  to  become 
involved  in  this  manner.  The  portion  of  bowel  being 
strangulated  and  gangrenous  when  death  ensues,  but  cases 
have  been  known  in  which  the  enclosed  part  sloughed 
away  and  recovery  occurred. 

Treatment — If  the  presence  of  a  lesion  of  this  nature  is 
suspected  a  tobacco-smoke  enema  may  be  resorted  to.  In 
other  animals  artificial  tympany  thus  induced  has  been 
found  useful  against  intussusception.  Stimulant  and 
anti-spasmodic  doses  also  may  prove  effectual  against  the 
early  and  rapid  prostration  and  the  spasm  which  is  present. 

Prognosis,  however,  is  unfavorable. 

Volvulus,  Ileus,  or  Twist  of  the  Bowel,  is  another 
sequela  of  colic.  In  it  the  bowel  is  twisted  upon  itself 
or  one  portion  of  the  intestine  has  passed  round  another, 
resulting  in  obstruction  and  strangulation.  There  is 
nothing  about  the  symptoms  which  is  diagnostic  of 
this  condition  from  that  last  mentioned.  It  very 
seldom  occurs  in  the  ox,  but  when  it  does  so  a  small 
knuckle  of  bowel  only  may  be  involved,  and  thus  no 
obstruction  to  the  intestinal  canal  take,  place.  Explora- 
tion per  rectum  may  prove  useful  from  a  diagnostic  point 
of  view  in  these  obscure  abdominal  affections,  and  Pro- 
fessor Walleyes  paper  on  the  "  Differential  Diagnosis  of 
Abdominal  Affections  '^  should  be  carefully  perused  by 
all  members  of  the  veterinary  profession  ('  Veterinary 
Journal^).  Laparotomy  might  be  resorted  to  in  extreme 
cases  of  this  kind.      It   is   recommended   by   continental 


276  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

writers^  and  the  ox,  of  all  animals,  is  least  liable  to  be 
seriously  affected  by  it.  The  operation  should  be  per- 
formed on  the  right  side  opposite  the  seat  of  incision  in 
ruminotomy ;  and  similar  measures  taken  for  closure 
of  the  wound,  and  after  treatment.  Pedunculated  fatty 
tumours  hanging  from  the  outer  surface  of  the  intestine 
may  be  twisted  round  the  bowel.  These  are  enlarged 
apendices  epiploicae.  Most  often  the  volvulus  is  the 
result  of  violent  struggles  during  abdominal  pain. 

Hernia  is  protrusion  of  an  organ  from  its  natural  cavity 
either  into  another  cavity  of  the  body  or  into  an  accidental 
pouch.  Abdominal  herniae  are  the  most  frequent  in  the  ox, 
as  in  other  animals.  They  may  be  congenital,  present  at 
birth,  or  acquired,  when  they  appear  suddenly  later  in  life. 
Are  reducihle  or  irreducihle  as  the  organ  can  or  cannot  be 
returned  to  its  proper  place ;  strangulated  when  it  is  sub- 
jected to  pressure,  and  so  becomes  disordered ;  and  recur- 
rent when,  having  been  returned,  the  part  again  becomes 
displaced.  According  to  the  nature  of  the  contents  the 
hernia  is  a  gastrocele,  enter ocele,  epiplocele,  cystocele ;  the 
stomach,  bowels,  omentum,  bladder,  respectively  being  dis- 
placed. The  opening  through  which  the  herniated  viscus 
passes  varies  in  position,  and  thus  we  have  the  ventral,  in- 
guinal and  scrotal,  umbilical,  mesenteric,  and  phrenic  forms. 
Sometinies  this  is  anatural  opening, sometimes  the  result  of 
giving  way  of  the  tissues  in  consequence  of  injury.  The 
parietal  layer  of  the  peritoneum  is  forced  out  before  the 
viscus,  forms  the  serous  sac  of  the  hernia,  and  becomes 
vascular,  thickened,  and  subsequently  indurated.  It  fre- 
quently contracts  adhesions  with  the  peritoneal  coat  of  the 
viscus.  In  the  ventral  and  umbilical  forms  the  skin  yields  to 
gradual  pressure,  and  thus  seems  too  large  after  reduction 
of  the  hernia.  In  chronic  cases  the  passage  through  which 
the  organ  passes  becomes  thickened  and  rounded  at  the 
margins,  and  assumes  a  circular  figure.  Peristalsis  of  the 
viscus  may  force  more  of  it  into  the  hernia  sac,  or  the  impri- 
soned part  may  become  overladen  with  contents,  or  there 
may  be  swelling  of  the  neck  of  the  tumour.  Either  of  these 
conditions  leads  to  strangulation,  whereby  the  imprisoned 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  277 

portion  becomes  extremely  congested,  because  of  prevention 
of  the  return  of  blood  from  it ;  gangrene  results,  and  may- 
involve  the  peritoneum,  in  general  extending  from  the 
hernia  as  a  centre.  Internal  herniae  may  exist  for  some  time 
without  causing  any  appreciable  inconvenience,  except  when 
they  become  strangulated.  When  superficial,  as  in  the 
umbilical  and  ventral  forms,  they  produce  a  swelling  which 
is  soft,  elastic,  and  often  disappears  as  a  result  of  properly 
applied  pressure.  The  tumour  communicates  a  diagnostic 
impulse  to  the  hand  when  the  animal  coughs.  Sometimes 
the  characters  of  the  tumour  differ  from  those  above  de- 
scribed, as  when  the  omentum  is  the  part  imprisoned ;  then 
the  swelling  is  plastic,  lobulated,  and  gradually  disappears 
on  pressure.  These  lesions  are  mainly  attributable  to  ex- 
ertion and  injuries.  Thus  they  occur  as  a  result  of  straining 
during  parturition,  constipation,  or  coughing.  The  sym- 
ptoms of  strangulation  are  those  of  acute  abdominal  disorder, 
stamping,  kicking  the  belly,  rolling,  and  violent  straining, 
whereby  a  contracted  state  of  the  rectum,  which  prevents 
the  entry  of  the  hand,  is  produced  (this  has  been  thought 
to  be  diagnostic),  also  general  or  local  perspirations,  rapid 
breathing,  and  a  quick,  hard  pulse.  When  gangrene 
supervenes  we  have  sudden  cessation  of  the  pain,  anxiety, 
running  down  pulse,  marked  fall  of  internal  temperature, 
and  extreme  coldness  of  the  extremities,  and,  finally,  a 
delirous  condition  terminating  shortly  in  death.  Treat- 
ment comprises  return  of  the  viscus,  and  prevention  of 
the  recurrence  of  the  hernia. 

Umbilical  Hernia,  Exomphalos,  mostly  is  found  in  young 
animals,  and  is  not  unfrequently  congenital.  In  older 
beasts  it  may  result  from  injury  and  straining.  Some- 
times, through  want  of  tone  in  the  system,  due  to  scro- 
fulous and  other  debilitating  tendencies,  the  umbilicus 
remains  iii  a  relaxed  condition  after  birth,  so  that  the 
straining  of  the  young  animal  to  expel  the  hardened 
meconium  per  anum  is  apt  to  cause  hernia.  We  may 
expect  to  find  this  condition  also  more  frequently  in 
animals  born  prematurely  than  in  those  which  have  passed 
the   full  time  of    utero-gestation.      This  form   of    hernia 


278 


BOVINE   PATHOLOaY. 


often  is  an  epiplocele,  and  enlargement  of  the  abdomen 
being  more  rapid  than  growth  either  of  the  omentum 
major  or  of  the  mesentery,  spontaneous  reduction  soon 
takes  place.  If  it  does  not  the  influence  of  a  truss  may- 
be tried.  This  consists  of  a  pad  supported  by  straps, 
which  are  fastened  over  the  loins.  It  is  kept  from  slipping 
backwards  by  a  back  strap,  and  others  passing  between 
the  fore  legs  and  becoming  attached  anteriorly  to  a 
collar,  from  slipping  forwards  by  a  crupper.  Difficulty 
may  be  experienced  in  keeping  this  in  position,  so  that 
other  means  require  to  be  resorted  to  ;  the  truss  returns 
the  viscus  and  retains  it,  and  thus  removes  the  cause  of 


Fig.  57.— Truss  applied  for  umbilical  hernia.     (Armatage,) 

constant   distension    and  enlargement   of    the   umbilicus, 
which  is  then  free  gradually  to  close.      Powerful  external 


Fig.  58.— Clamps  for  umbilical  hernia.    Wooden,  and  *'  iron  screw 
(Armatage.) 

stimulation  of  the  tumour,  or  subcutaneous  injection  of 
irritants  locally,  as  tending  to  excite  adhesive  inflamma- 
tion and  closure  of  the  umbilicus,  have  been  suggested, 
but  are  not  often  effectual ;   a  preferable  method  is  com- 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  279 

pression  of  the  skin  after  return  of  the  bowel^  either  by 
clamps  or  ligature.  Two  forms  of  clamps  are  suggested,,  the 
wooden,  somewhat  resembling  the  ordinary  caustic  wood 
clamp  for  castration,  jointed  at  one  end,  and  arranged  for 
retention  at  the  other  by  a  ligature,  and  the  iroriy  consist- 
ing of  bars,  averaging  about  seven  inches  in  length,  con- 
nected together  at  each  extremity  by  a  screw  (Fig.  58.)  The 
ligature  treatment  consists  in  careful  return  of  the  protruded 
viscus,  after  which  skewers  are  passed  through  the  loose  skin 
covering  the  hernia  at  right  angles  to  one  another.  A 
cord  is  then  tied  round  the  skin  between  the  abdomen 
and  the  skewers,  but  too  great  pressure  must  not  be 
exerted,  for  the  aim  must  be  to  excite  extravasation  of 
plastic  lymph  to  block  up  the  umbilicus,  and  not  rapid 
strangulation  of  the  puckered  skin  leading  to  sloughing. 
An  elastic  ligature  or  ring  is  admirably  adapted  for  these 
cases,  since  it  accommodates  itself  to  diminutions  in  size 
of  the  peduncle  as  they  occur.  In  either  of  these  opera- 
tions the  animal  must  be  thrown  and  kept  on  its  back, 
which  will  facilitate  the  return  of  the  contents  of  the  sac ; 
and  as  such  cases  in  young  animals  as  are  operated  on  are 
not  liable  to  be  adherent,  there  is  but  little  chance  of 
injury  of  the  intestines  with  the  skewers,  and  will  be  none 
if  proper  care  be  taken. 

Ventral  Hernia. — Protrusions  of  portions  of  abdominal 
viscera  through  ruptures  in  the  abdominal  muscular  walls. 
The  case  is  generally  one  of  enterocele,  and  most  fre- 
quently results  from  cattle  butting  one  another  and  from 
"  staking.^^  It  appears  suddenly,  and  the  tumours  present 
all  the  characters  of  a  hernia  as  above  enumerated.  These 
cases  are  apt  to  become  chronic,  and  a  fibrous  state  of  the 
margins  of  the  opening  occurs.  They  are  not  likely  to 
become  strangulated,  but  a  hernia  is  always  liable  to 
injury.  When  small  and  recent,  they  may  be  treated  by 
application  of  a  powerful  blister,  which  will  promote  repair, 
but  when  small  and  chronic,  they  may  be  left  alone  ;  but  in 
cows  they  are  liable  to  become  enlarged  during  parturition. 
The  operation  for  radical  cure  consists  in  careful  incision 
through  the  skin  after  return  of  the  contents.    The  edges  of 


280  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

the  rent  in  the  muscles  are  then  to  be  brought  together  and 
retained  by  metallic  sutures.  The  wound  in  the  skin  is  to 
be  closed  subsequently.  In  a  case  of  extensive  hernia, 
the  sooner  this  operation  is  performed  the  better,  for  the 
edges  of  the  muscular  lesion  will  have  undergone  less 
profound  changes,  and  therefore  lymph  will  be  more  readily 
thrown  out.  Of  course  the  animal  must  be  cast  for  the 
operation,  and  must  be  placed  in  a  position  varying  with 
that  of  the  hernia.  The  patient  must  be  kept  on  soft 
food,  and  apart  from  the  herd  in  a  quiet  shed,  until  the 
external  wound  has  healed.  When  a  ventral  hernia  is 
injured,  the  intestine  enclosed  may  ulcerate  with  the  skin 
and  2b  false  anus  be  formed. 

Phrenic,  or  Diaphragmatic  hernia  in  the  ox,  is  generally 
a  gastrocele.  Thus  in  one  case  the  reticulum  and  a 
portion  of  the  rumen  passed  into  the  chest.  In  another 
the  omasum  and  part  of  the  abomasum  (?)  In  such  the 
symptoms  are  those  of  strangulation  in  general,  together 
with  special  disturbance  of  respiration.  Sometimes  chronic 
cases  of  this  nature  are  found  in  cattle  after  death.  Con- 
cerning such,  Youatt  says,  '^  The  attack  has  been  sudden 
(at  some  time  previously),  but  the  colicky  pains  have  not 
been  violent,  they  have  intermitted,  disappeared ;  but  an 
habitual  difficulty  of  breathing  has  been  left  behind,  dis- 
inclination to  rapid  motion,  fright  when  suddenly  moved, 
anxiety  of  countenance,  perhaps  impairment  of  condition, 
and  certainly,  impossibility  of  acquiring  any  considerable 
degree  of  condition.^' 

Mesenteric  Hernia  is  passage  of  a  portion  of  bowel 
through  a  rent  in  the  mesentery ;  it  seldom  occurs  in  the 
ox;  is  liable  to  become  strangulated,  but  cannot  be  ac- 
curately diagnosed,  in  so  far  as  we  know  at  present. 

Inguinal  and  Scrotal  Hernia  differ  simply  in  degree. 
When  the  bowel — for  it  is  generally  enterocele — passes 
through  the  internal  abdominal  ring,  and  so  into  the 
inguinal  canal,  it  is  an  inguinal  hernia,  but  if  it  passes 
through  the  external  ring  and  enters  the  scrotum  it  is 
scrotal.  This  form  of  hernia  is  frequently  congenital,  and 
thus    is  very   likely  to    disappear   as   the   animal  grows 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  281 

older  and  the  abdominal  rings  grow  smaller,  and  the  in- 
guinal canal  is  occupied  by  the  spermatic  cord  after  descent 
of  the  testis.  It  is  sometimes  seen  in  adults,  and  is  apt 
to  become  strangulated.  It  is  by  far  more  frequent  in 
bulls  than  in  castrated  males. 

Treatment. — In  cases  of  strangulation,  attempts  may  be 
made  by  taxis  (manipulative  means)  to  remove  the  im- 
prisoned portion  of  bowel,  traction  being  applied  by  the 
hand  in  the  rectum.  This  means  failing,  and  it  seldom  i? 
successful,  the  animal  must  be  cast  and  placed  on  his  back 
to  facilitate  the  gradual  return  by  direct  and  special  mani- 
pulation. If  this  succeeds  the  animal,  if  a  bull,  should 
then  be  castrated  by  the  covered  operation.  But  if  the 
hernia  is  irreducible  the  constricting  portion  must  be 
divided  with  a  bistoury,  as  described  in  works  on  the 
Surgery  of  the  Horse  (especially  ^  Williams^  Surgery^). 
Youatt  mentions  ^'  a  species  of  rupture,  very  difficult  to  be 
treated,  and  occurs  in  cows  in  an  advanced  stage  of  preg- 
nancy. An  excessive  accumulation  of  fluid  has  take  place 
in  the  womb  or  calf  bed,  and  the  tendinous  expansion  of 
the  muscles  which  support  the  lower  part  of  the  belly  has 
given  way.  The  farmer  says  that  the  '  rim  of  the  cow's 
belly  is  ruptured  ; '  a  portion  of  the  womb  escapes  through 
the  opening  and  descends  into  the  groin  or  seems  to  occupy 
the  udder.  Mr.  Allison,  of  Idle,  relates  a  case  ('  Yeteri- 
narian,'  1831,  p.  555)  in  which  the  head  of  the  calf  had 
been  forced  down  into  the  groin.  The  calf  was  extracted 
with  no  great  difficulty,  but  the  bowels  then  descended 
through  the  rupture  into  the  place  that  had  been  occupied 
by  the  foetus  and  the  animal  was  irrecoverably  lost." 

Pelvic  Hernia. — '^Gut-tie/'  ^^ Bound/'  is  a  form  of  dis- 
placement of  the  bowel  which  is  seen  in  certain  districts,  and 
is  most  frequent  in  mountainous  countries ;  thus  it  is  preva- 
lent in  Switzerland.  Among  English  counties,  Hereford, 
Northampton,  and  Lincolnshire  afford  the  greater  number 
of  these.  It  is  seen  only  in  bullocks  and  most  frequently 
about  the  second  or  third  year. 

Symptoms. — Colicky  pains,  often  of  a  very  acute  char- 
acter,  so   that  the  animal   alternately   arches  and  curves 


282  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

the  back ;  in  the  latter  process,  stretching  the  fore  legs 
forwards  and  the  hind  backwards,  and  almost  bringing 
the  abdomen  into  contact  with  the  ground.  Moving  the 
hind  quarters  from  side  to  side,  crossing  the  legs,  and  a 
tendency  to  press  the  hind  parts  against  some  standing 
object,  as  a  wall  or  fence.  Much  pain  is  manifested  when 
the  hand  is  introduced  into  the  rectum  ;  there  is  difficulty 
in  inserting  it,  but  when  it  has  been  passed  in  and  pressed  to 
the  right  the  strangulated  portion  may  be  felt.  Through- 
out the  attack  the  faeces  are  scanty  in  quantity,  they  are 
sometimes  bloody,  also  there  is  continuous  straining.  In 
addition  to  the  above,  there  are  the  general  signs  of 
strangulation,  which  may  lead  to  those  indicating  that  the 
bowel  has  become  grangrenous. 

Cause. — This  is  evidently  a  result  of  castration,  and  is 
found  to  supervene  on  the  '^  tearing  '^  operation,  when  the 
cord  remains  too  long  and  becomes  fixed  in  the  internal 
abdominal  ring,  and  between  this  and  the  brim  of  the 
pelvis  the  bowel  passes,  pushing  the  peritoneum  before  it  as 
the  hernial  sac.  It  is  supposed  that  the  gradual  shortening 
of  the  cord  as  it  atrophies  causes  it  to  strangulate  the  im- 
prisoned bowel.  Williams  considers  that  it  is  in  some  cases 
due  to  twisting  of  the  remnant  of  the  cord  around  the  in- 
testine. Working  oxen  are  very  liable  to  become  affected, 
especially  when  they  are  on  rough  uneven  ground.  This  form 
of  hernia  may  result  from  strains  and  intestinal  commotions 
like  the  other  kinds.  When  the  conditions  are  otherwise  fa- 
vorable the  attack  seldom,  if  ever,  lasts  more  than  eight  days. 

Treatment. — Causing  the  animal  to  take  a  ^'  drop  leap,'' 
and  rolling  him  about  on  his  back  after  casting  have  been 
suggested,  and  are  sometimes  effectual.  Preferably  we 
may  explore  per  rectum,  and  having  detected  the  mass  of 
faecal  matter  obstructed  near  the  hernia,  exert  pressure 
upwards  and  forwards,  and  by  special  manipulative 
means  the  adhesion  of  the  cord  may  be  broken  down 
('Edinburgh  Veterinary  Eeview,' vol.  i,  p.  73). 

Generally,  however,  abdominal  section  is  necessary. 
The  hernia  usually  takes  place  on  the  right  side,  though 
it  may  be  on  the  left.      The  animal  is  kept  in  the  stand- 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  283 

ing  posture,  with  the  left  side  against  a  wall.  An  in- 
cision is  made,  large  enough  to  admit  the  hand,  down- 
wards from  the  point  opposite  that  of  puncture  of  the 
rumen,  and  the  muscles  are  first  divided  ;  subsequently 
the  peritoneum  is  perforated,  and  the  hand  is  introduced 
and  passed  upwards  and  backwards  to  behind  the  kidney, 
where  the  remains  of  the  cord  may  be  felt  and  traced  down- 
wards. The  bowel  may  be  then  gently  drawn  away,  but 
if  it  does  not  yield  to  very  mild  traction  a  probe-pointed 
bistoury  must  be  passed  in,  and  the  adhesion  of  the  cord 
to  the  abdominal  ring  divided,  to  prevent  recurrence. 
This  is  generally  sufficient  to  permanently  effect  relief; 
the  colicky  pains  cease,  and  a  free  discharge  of  faeces 
takes  place.  We  need  not  further  describe  the  operation, 
for  the  abdominal  incision  must  be  closed  in  the  usual 
manner. 

Peolapsus  differs  from  hernia  in  that  the  protrusion 
occurs  through  one  of  the  natural  orifices.  The  rectum  is 
the  only  bowel  which  can  thus  become  displaced,  and  cases 
of  this  are  not  uncommon.  The  causes  are,  violent  strain- 
ing, such  as  is  symptomatic  of  the  various  conditions  which 
cause  obstruction  of  the  intestinal  passage ;  also,  it  some- 
times results  from  parturition  throes,  or  where  impediment 
prevents  evacuation  of  the  bladder.  After  protrusion  the 
part  becomes  strangulated,  assumes  a  bright-red  colour, 
and  then  becomes  very  much  enlarged  by  gelatinous  ex- 
travasation between  the  intestinal  coats ;  subsequently  it 
becomes  cold  and  purple. 

Treatment. — If  possible,  remove  the  cause  of  straining ; 
then  carefully  clean  the  protruded  bowel  by  washing  it 
with  cold  water,  after  which  apply  even  pressure  over  the 
organ,  gradually  returning  it  from  the  centre.  There  is 
no  serious  objection  to  diminution  of  its  bulk  by  scarifica- 
tion. If  all  measures  prove  unsuccessful,  and  the  organ 
becomes  purple,  it  may  be  amputated,  and  the  edges  of  the 
two  cut  portions  of  the  bowel  united  together  by  sutures. 
Subsequently  anodyne  agents,  as  opium,  may  be  given, 
and  the  diet  be  soft  for  some  time.  This  lesion  is  some- 
times termed  j^roZa^Jsits  ani. 


284  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

Torpidity  of  fhe  action  of  the  bowels  is  a  constitutional 
peculiarity  of  some  individuals,  and  it  may  arise  as  a 
result  of  disease  of  other  parts  of  the  body.  More  or 
less  marked  torpidity  is  found  in  fever.  This  must  be  dis- 
tinguished from  Constipation,  in  which  there  is  a  cessation 
of  passage  of  faeces  on  account  of  some  impediment,  me- 
chanical or  organic.  Thus,  it  is  a  symptom  of  strictures 
and  impactions  of  the  stomach  or  intestines,  may  be  due 
to  tumours,  either  within,  in  the  walls  of,  or  pressing  on 
the  bowels  ;  it  is  a  symptom  of  volvulus,  intussusception, 
and  intestinal  calculi,  and  concretions  of  various  kinds, 
such  as  faecal  accumulations.  The  cause  should  be  deter- 
mined as  exactly  as  possible,  aud  counteracted  when  this 
is  possible.  Faecal  concretions  are  very  rare  in  the  ox. 
When  constipation  depends  upon  organic  disease  it  is  liable 
to  recur,  unless  the  animal  be  fed  on  very  soft  food  and  an 
occasional  laxative  given.  Relief  of  constipation  is  indi- 
cated by  the  passage  of  hard  faecal  masses  with  a  con- 
siderable coating  of  mucus,  sometimes  also  intermingled 
with  a  small  quantity  of  blood.  If  unrelieved,  a  faecal 
accumulation  may  give  rise  to  gangrene.  The  following 
note,  after  Youatt,  seems  to  show  that  we  are,  perhaps,  not 
often  suflSciently  bold  in  treatment  of  obscure  intestinal 
affections  of  the  ox  : — ^'  Dr.  Cheselden  relates  a  very  ex- 
traordinary case  of  healing  power,  and  does  not  forbid 
hope,  although  the  intestines  may  have  been  injured  to  a 
very  great  extent.  '  An  ox,'  he  says,  ^  was  suffering  under 
constipation  of  the  bowels.  Thomas  Brayer,  a  doctor  for 
cattle  opened  the  ox  in  the  flank,  and  took  out  a  great  part  of 
his  bowels,  upon  searching  which  he  found  that  there  was  a 
perfect  stoppage  in  the  guts,  and  that  the  gut  was,  about  the 
stoppage,  putrefied  for  about  three  yards;  whereupon  he 
cut  off  so  much  of  the  gut  as  was  putrefied,  and  took  it 
quite  away,  and  then  drew  the  ends  of  the  guts  which 
remained  sound,  after  what  was  cut  off,  together  upon 
a  hollow  keck,  which  was  about  three  or  four  inches  long, 
and  sewed  the  said  ends  of  the  guts  together  upon  the  said 
keck,  leaving  the  keck  within  the  guts,  and  then  sewed  up 
the  hole  cut  in  the  hide  upon   the  flank  of  the    said  ox. 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  285 

Within  the  space  of  one  hour  after  this  operation  was  per- 
formed the  ox  dunged,  and  the  piece  of  the  keck  which 
the  said  end  of  the  gut  were  sewn  upon  came  away  from 
the  ox  with  the  dung,  whereupon  the  ox  recovered,  and 
lived  to  do  the  owner  service  for  several  years/  '^ 

We  may  here  discuss  the  value  of  cathartics  in  cattle 
practice.  All  practitioners  of  experience  advocate  prompt 
exhibition  of  a  full  cathartic  dose  when  a  beast  is  taken 
ill.  Undoubtedly,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  this  is  good 
practice.  It  is  useful  in  all  inflammations,  except  of  the 
alimentary  canal,  and  when  this  tube  is  affected  symptoms 
are  generally  manifested  sufficiently  long  before  the  in- 
flammatory stage  occurs,  and  so  one  cause  of  these  dis- 
orders is  removed,  and  congestion  probably  relieved  by 
the  timely  use  of  a  saline  cathartic.  Again,  the  quality 
or  quantity  of  food  ingested  is  the  cause  of  many  dis- 
orders. The  cathartic  generally  administered  to  the  ox — 
Epsom  salts — is  not  so  drastic  as  that  given  to  the  horse ; 
and  notably,  catharsis  can  be  produced  with  greater 
facility  and  more  rapidly  in  the  former  animal  than  in 
the  latter.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  less  complexity 
and  digestive  importance  of  the  intestines  in  the  ox.  A 
direct  result  of  it  is  that  in  this  animal  we  seldom  see  super- 
purgation,  and  when  this  does  take  place  it  must  not  be 
hastily  checked,  but  the  food  must  be  dry,  and  the  animal 
protected  from  exposure.  It  will  seldom  fail  to  cease  spon- 
taneously, but  too  hasty  administration  of  powerful  astrin- 
gent agents  might  do  serious  harm.  We  must  remember 
that  cathartic  agents  may  remain  in  one  of  the  oesophageal 
compartments  of  the  stomach  for  a  considerable  length  of 
time  without  producing  any  effect,  and  when  the  function  of 
the  rumino-reticular  sphincter  is  perverted,  as  in  disease, 
the  whole  of  a  cathartic  dose  may  fall  into  an  inert  rumen ; 
it  cannot  pass  from  here  very  freely  when  the  move- 
ments of  this  stomach  are  irregular.  This  state  of  affairs 
is  especially  liable  to  take  place  when  impaction  of  the 
omasum  tends  to  obstruct,  if  it  does  not  actually  block 
up  the  lower  part  of  the  oesophageal  passage.  In  some 
cases   stimulants   or  other  cordial   agents   will  rouse  the 


286  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

rumen  to  action.  The  degree  to  which  constipation  may 
exist  in  the  ox,  and  the  large  amount  of  cathartic  doses 
which  may  be  given,  are  well  illustrated  in  a  case  recorded 
in  the  '  Veterinarian/  1829,  p.  357,  by  Professor  (then  Mr.) 
Simonds.  Obstinate  retention  of  faeces  has  been  attributed 
to  fatty  deposition  around  the  rectum,  since  in  prize  beasts 
accumulations  of  this  nature  are  sometimes  most  remark- 
able. 

HLemoeehoids — piles — tumours  in  the  terminal  portion 
of  the  rectum  or  about  the  anus,  are  described  by  Armatage 
as  of  occasional  occurrence  in  the  ox.  They  are  varicose 
conditions  of  haemorrhoidal  or  rectal  veins.  The  principal 
symptoms  to  which  they  give  rise  are  pain  in  defeecation, 
protrusion  of  the  anus,  bloody  faeces,  the  presence  of  tu- 
mours, and  often  some  constitutional  disturbance.  They 
depend  upon  liver  disorder  or  habitual  constipation. 

Treatment  comprises  soft  diet,  occasional  administration 
of  laxatives,  removal  by  ligature  when  practicable,  and 
astringent  injections.  Such  measures,  of  course,  are  only 
palliative.  Cruzel  describes  as  "Irritation  venteuse  du 
rectum/'  a  disease  which  he  attributes  to  the  frequent 
egress  and  ingress  of  air  through  the  anus,  as  it  occurs 
in  animals  which  work  with  their  tails  elevated. 

Diarrhoea. — Frequent  evacuation  of  excessively  fluid 
faeces  is  a  symptom  of  many  disorders,  or  else  is  a  diseased 
condition  of  the  lining  mucous  membranes  of  the  intestines, 
which  is  congested  and,  in  some  cases,  inflamed.  The 
latter  state  is  verging  on  dysentery,  in  which  diarrhoea 
when  long  continued  and  uncontrolled  terminates.  The 
faeces,  besides  being  very  liquid,  are  often  highly  foetid,  and 
are  expelled  suddenly  with  force.  In  acute  cases  there  is 
an  injected  condition  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the 
rectum,  and  tenesmus  is  a  marked  feature.  Colicky  pains 
may  be  present.  The  animal  either  feeds  but  little  or  the 
appetite  is  depraved ;  rumination  is  irregular  and  imperfect, 
the  urine  scanty,  and  the  patient  stands  apart  from  the 
rest  of  the  herd  with  arched  back  and  anxious  expression. 

Causes. — Any  irritation  of  the  alimentary  canal  may 
give  rise  to  this   disorder,  thus   coarse  and  badly   saved 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  287 

foodj  certain  acrid  plants  in  a  pasture^  even  excess  or  sudden 
changes  of  food.  Sometimes  when  an  animal  is  turned  out 
after  being  kept  in  a  stall  an  attack  comes  on,  also  any  ex- 
posure to  cold  is  a  very  fruitful  cause,  since  thereby  the  ex- 
cretory function  of  the  skin  is  arrested,  and  extra  work  is 
thrown  on  the  internal  organs,  lungs,  kidneys,  and  bowels. 
Sometimes  chronic  diarrhoea  results  from  long-continued 
improper  dieting,  whereby  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
alimentary  canal  becomes  organically  altered,  and  its 
secretory  function  perverted.  When  calves  are  being 
weaned  they  are  very  liable  to  become  affected  in  this 
way,  and  they  have  little  strength  of  constitution  to 
enable  them  to  withstand  an  attack.  Indeed,  in  the 
majority  of  cases  of  obstinate  diarrhoea  there  is  a  debili- 
tated state  of  the  system  which  is  a  result  of  the  flux, 
but  also  proves  an  accessory  cause.  This  explains  the 
obstinacy  of  the  disorder.  In  diseases  of  the  liver,  and 
it  is  said  also  of  the  pancreas,  diarrhoea  may  be  present. 
When  the  flow  of  bile  is  excessive  the  evacuations  become 
dark -coloured,  watery,  and  profuse.  The  presence  of  para- 
sites is  occasionally  the  cause,  but  in  many  cases  diarrhoea 
is  merely  an  indication  of  blood  disease.  Thus,  this  is  the 
case  in  rinderpest,  certain  forms  of  anthrax,  and  notably 
of  scrofula,  when  either  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
intestines  or  the  mesenteric  glands  are  affected.  Sometimes 
a  relaxed  state  of  the  bowels  occurs  as  a  critical  symptom 
in  disorders,  of  this  ^'  red  water  '^  is  a  notable  instance. 

On  post-mortem  examination  a  general  angemic  condition 
is  found  associated  with  congestive  blush  of  the  gastric 
and  intestinal  mucous  membrane,  and  perhaps  the  organic 
changes  which  produced  the  disorder  will  be  detectable. 

Treatment. — When  called  to  a  case  of  this  disease  we 
must  determine  whether  it  be  due  to  blood  disease  or  local 
irritation.  In  these  cases  it  may  even  be  advisable  to  pro- 
mote it  by  administration  of  laxatives,  preferably  olea- 
ginous agents.  At  the  same  time  the  patient  should  be  care- 
f ullynursed  and  stimulant  tonics  administered  internally.  In 
all  cases  the  diet  must  undergo  a  thorough  change.  Where 
organic  disease  exists  tonics  must  prove  our  main  resource. 


288  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

Mild  astringents  also  may  be  given  with  judgment.  The 
mineral  tonics  are  very  useful  in  diarrhoea.  Where  colicky 
pains  are  present  tincture  of  opium  is  most  useful.  Water 
must  be  given  in  only  small  quantities,  the  food  should  be 
dry,  and  starch  gruel  is  an  astringent  beverage.  Where 
there  seems  to  be  a  perverted  condition  of  the  secretions, 
the  administration  of  calomel  with  opium  is  advisable. 
Creta  preparata  is  very  useful  as  an  antacid.  When 
scrofulous  tumours  are  probably  present,  but  little  hope 
of  recovery  can  be  entertained,  but  iodine  compounds  and 
copper  salts  may  be  tried.  Of  the  latter,  the  ammonio- 
sulphate  and  iodide  are  most  likely  to  prove  beneficial. 
In  cases  of  enzootic  outbreaks  of  diarrhoea  something 
more  than  curative  influence  is  required  from  the  prac- 
titioner. The  food  must  be  carefully  examined.  Cakes 
may  contain  mustard,  the  water  may  be  prejudicial,  or, 
lastly,  the  herbage  may  be  laxative,  as  in  the  scouring 
lands  of  Somersetshire  and  other  parts  of  the  country. 

Dysentery — bloody  flux — is  inflammation  of  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  bowels,  accompanied  by  ulceration.  It 
follows  protracted  diarrhoea,  or  may  originate  as  a  disease 
in  itself  from  exposure  to  cold,  coarse  innutritious  pro- 
vender, and  almost  any  debilitating  influence  which  acts 
slowly  but  persistently.  Thus,  it  is  a  sequela  or  culmina- 
tion of  some  cases  of  scrofula,  and  may  be  found  as  a  com- 
plication in  other  blood  diseases.  It  may  be  an  after-effect 
of  poisonous  ag/ents. 

Symptoms. — -Sometimes  the  disease  is  acute,  but  more 
often  chronic.  In  the  acute  cases  there  is  fever,  together 
with  the  signs  of  slight  abdominal  pains.  The  patient 
stands  with  back  arched,  and  constantly  strains,  passing 
only  a  small  amount  of  watery  matter  tinged  with  blood ; 
sometimes  vesicles  maybe  seen  in  the  nostrils  (Armatage). 
As  the  disease  advances  signs  of  abdominal  pain  increase  in 
intensity,  and  the  rapid  emaciation  takes  place,  and  the 
patient  sinks  and  dies  from  exhaustion.  In  the  chronic 
form,  which  generally  results  from  the  acute,  the  sym- 
ptoms are  those  of  extreme  debility  (as  described  under 
the  heading  '^  Anaemia'^) ;   the  patient  is  hide-bound,  and 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  289 

often  cedematous^  in  a  state  of  extreme  emaciation  ',  with 
coat  dry  and  staring,  mucous  membranes  pallid,  eyes 
sunken,  ears  pendulous,  dull  glazed  appearance  of  the 
eyes,  relaxed  condition  of  the  anus,  from  which  there  is 
constantly  a  slight  sanguineous  discharge,  and  the  rectum 
protrudes  a  little ;  back  arched,  pain  on  pressure  of  the 
loins,  and  staggering  gait.  Generally,  the  skin  is  tho- 
roughly invaded  by  lice.  When  faeces  are  passed  in 
quantity  they  are  found  to  be  highly  offensive,  san- 
guineous, glairy,  and  viscid,  in  consequence  of  the  amount 
of  mucus  present.  The  animal  will  remain  in  this 
state  for  a  very  long  time,  in  spite  of  the  most  active 
measures  of  treatment ;  and  when  at  length  death  occurs 
from  asthenia  or  slaughter,  post-mortem  examination 
shows  that  the  stomach  may  be  involved,  as  well  as  the 
intestines.  Thus,  the  abomasum  has  its  lining  membrane 
reddened,  with  a  gelatinous  effusion  into  its  substance,  and 
into  the  submucous  areolar  tissue.  The  small  intestines 
are  sometimes  somewhat  similarly  affected,  but  not  unfre- 
quently  present  only  a  slight  congestive  blush  of  the  lining 
membrane.  The  large  intestines  are  the  main  seat  of  the 
disorder,  and  show  spots  of  extravasation  and  ecchymosis, 
also  congestive  streaking,  giving  them  a  bluish  colour, 
also  ulcerations,  penetrating  the  mucous  coat  more  or  less 
deeply.  The  contents  are  of  an  offensive  si 
with  blood. 

Treatment  is  very  unsatisfactory,  whi( 
Mr.  Armatage  suggests,  is  due  to  the  fact^ 
eased  membrane  of  the  alimentary  canal  is  nli 
dition  to  allow  of  ready  absorption.  He  therefol 
treatment  by  means  of  subcutaneous  injection.  We 
adopt  those  measures  already  recommended  for  diarrhoea 
due  to  organic  change^  but  in  chronic  cases  may  use 
powerful  astringents.  Astringent  enemas  should  be  ad- 
ministered, and,  according  to  some  authorities,  doses  of 
carbolic  acid,  chlorinated  lime,  and  hyposulphite  of  soda, 
are  beneficial.  Careful  nursing  is  absolutely  necessary, 
though  these  cases  are  so  tedious  that  they  are  generally 
left  to  take  their  chance.      The  food  must  be  judiciously 

19 


290  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

selected^  dry,  and  nutritious.  Calomel  with  opium  has 
been  followed  by  the  best  results,  but  this  treatment  needs 
constant  supervision  by  the  practitioner.  Animals  which 
are  affected  with  dysentery  are  known  as  '^  scanterers"  in 
some  parts  of  the  country,  or  are  said  to  be  ^'  rotten.^' 

The  disease  known  as  Pantas,  Moor-ill,  or  Wood-evil, 
may  here  be  mentioned.  It  is  a  form  of  gastro-enteritis 
due  to  coarse  or  acrid  food  material ;  it  affects  whole  herds, 
especially  in  long,  dry  summers,  when  there  is  a  deficiency 
of  herbage,  so  that  plants  ordinarily  avoided  are  con- 
sumed. It  is  sometimes  attributed  to  free  consumption 
of  astringent  buds,  as  of  the  oak  tree,  and  of  heath ;  also 
scarcity  of  food  may  be  due  to  over-stocking  of  land,  and 
so  an  outbreak  of  this  disease  may  occur. 

8ymf  tolas.' — The  attack  lasts  from  six  days  to  about  a 
fortnight,  and  is  ushered  in  by  dulness  and  constipation. 
The  latter  sign  is  found  throughout,  except  in  the  latest 
stages,  when  profuse  dysenteric  discharge  precedes  death. 
A  small  amount  of  faeces,  in  dry,  hard,  small  lumps,  coated 
with  mucus  of  a  thick,  stringy  character,  and  sometimes 
with  blood,  is  expelled  occasionally  with  some  difficulty. 
The  urine  is  scanty,  high  coloured,  and  voided  with  diffi- 
culty. Lactation  early  ceases,  and  the  appetite,  from  the 
first,  is  irregular  and  depraved.  Acute  febrile  signs  soon 
are  manifested,  and  there  is  tympany  with  acute  abdominal 
pain.  Yellowness  of  the  visible  mucous  membranes  indi- 
cates that  the  liver  is  also  involved.  Sometimes  the  brain 
seems  affected,  or  the  animal  becomes  almost  wild  with 
pain.  Rapid  emaciation  takes  place,  and  all  the  symptoms 
of  acute  dysentery  precede  death. 

Autopsy  shows  the  lesions  of  advanced  dysentery. 

The  treatment  differs  only  from  that  of  the  last- 
mentioned  disease  in  that  the  necessity  of  clearing  the 
alimentary  canal  is  even  more  urgent,  and  more  powerful 
cathartics  than  Epsom  salts  should  be  given,  to  be  followed 
by  salines  and  oils,  if  necessary.  Stimulants  and  tonics 
are  especially  indicated.  Mucilaginous  drinks  are  valuable 
as  sheathing  the  diseased  membranes.  Thorough  change 
of  diet  to  laxative  but  nutritious  food  and  liberal  supply 


THE   DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  291 

of  pure  water  are  essential,  and  of  course  tlie  patient  must 
be  removed  from  the  pasture  wliicli  has  caused  the  disease. 

Prophylaxis  consists  in  administration  of  occasional 
laxatives,  a  proper  supply  of  water  in  dry  seasons,  and 
avoidance  of  placing  more  animals  on  a  limited  pasture 
than  it  w-ill  support. 

Enteeitis. — Inflammation  of  the  intestines,  especially 
affecting  the  muscular  coat,  but  extending  to  the  mucous 
and  peritoneal,  is  not  frequent  in  the  ox,  except  in  working 
animals.  Plethoric  adults  are  most  liable  to  become 
affected.  It  is  due  to  exposure  to  rough  weather,  drinking 
cold  water  when  in  a  state  of  perspiration,  and  ingestion 
of  irritant  substances  ;  it  also  results  from  extension  of  in- 
flammation, and  may  be  brought  about  by  volvulus,  intus- 
susception, and  impaction. 

Symptoms. — There  are  general  signs  of  disorder,  with 
pain  on  pressure  of  the  loins,  frequent  passage  of  a  small 
amount  of  dry  f^ces,  and  perhaps  some  abdominal  disten- 
sion. Shortly  acute  febrile  disturbance  takes  place,  and 
the  patient  stands  obstinately  in  one  place,  with  muzzle 
protruded,  and  the  hind  limbs  seem  inclined  to  give  way. 
Thirst  is  excessive,  but  all  inclination  for  food  is  lost ;  the 
animal  moans,  grinds  his  teeth,  looks  round  at  the  right 
flank,  and  flinches  when  pressure  is  made  on  the  abdomen. 
The  pain  is  continuous,  which,  with  the  acute  fever,  serves 
to  distinguish  this  from  colicky  disorders.  Shortly  before 
death  the  patient  becomes  unconscious  and  falls,  moaning 
continuously.  The  passage  of  faeces  becomes  suppressed, 
and  "a  little  stream  of  liquid  excrement  forces  its  way 
through  the  hardened  mass,  by  which  the  rectum  is  dis- 
tended, and  that  which  is  voided  has  an  exceedingly  foetid 
and  putrid  smell. '^  Youatt  considers  this  diagnostic. 
Sometimes  death  is  preceded  by  cessation  of  pain,  but  the 
animal  is  anxious,  the  extremities  are  extremely  cold,  the 
pulse  imperceptible  or  '^running  down,"  and  the  internal 
temperature  falls  rapidly.  This  is  indicative  of  the  occur- 
rence of  gangrene.  Throughout  the  attack  the  pulse  is 
very  quick  and  small,  and  the  rectum,  when  examined 
with  the  hand,  is   evidently  very  much  increased  in  tem- 


292  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

perature.  The  torpidity  of  the  bowels  is  due  to  cessation 
of  peristalsis,  for  the  inflamed  muscular  coat  loses  its 
contractile  powers. 

Post-mortem  examination. — The  intestines  become  very 
soon  distended  with  gas.  The  peritoneum  is  congested, 
inflamed,  or  gangrenous  over  the  parts  of  the  intestine, 
which  are  the  centre  of  diseased  action.  The  peritoneal 
sac  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  sero-sanguineous 
fluid,  sometimes  also  flocculi  of  lymph.  Both  small  and 
large  bowels  are  generally  involved.  The  walls  of  the  bowel 
are  thickened  and  various  in  colour  in  different  parts,  from 
the  redness  of  simple  congestion  to  the  green  condition 
found  in  gangrene.  There  is  much  gelatinous  effusion  and 
some  blood  extravasation  between  the  muscular  fibres,  and 
the  contents  of  the  bowels  are  mainly  blood  and  mucus. 

Treatment. — Careful  nursing,  external  stimulation  of 
the  abdomen  by  means  of  hot- water  rugs  and  ammoniacal 
or  turpentine  applications,  manual  removal  of  accumu- 
lated faeces  from  the  rectum,  with  anodyne  and  muci- 
laginous injections.  Cathartics  must  be  avoided,  for  they 
cannot  make  the  intestines  act,  and  will  only  irritate. 
Aconite,  or  preferably  opium,  should  be  admistered  inter- 
nally, while  the  extreme  thirst  of  the  patient  may  be  relieved 
by  nitrated  water.  In  this  disorder  the  early  abstraction 
of  blood  has  been  found  highly  beneficial,  and  the  animals 
affected  are  usually  well  able  to  stand  the  depletion. 
Hot-water  applications  are  used  as  follows  : — The  furnace 
or  copper  having  been  set  going  to  ensure  a  free  supply 
of  boiling  water  a  blanket  is  folded  and  placed  trans- 
versely beneath  the  belly  of  the  patient ;  it  is  held  on 
either  side  by  a  man,  while  a  third  pours  fresh  water  in 
when  the  blanket  begins  to  cool.  During  the  intervals 
the  blanket  is  kept  well  up  against  the  abdomen.  This 
should  generally  be  continued  for  about  half  an  hour, 
when  the  parts  should  be  rubbed  thoroughly  dry,  and  a 
little  ammoniacal  solution  applied  with  friction.  This 
active  method  of  treatment  proves  most  effectual  in  some 
abdominal  disorders.      It  can  be  repeated  if  necessary. 

Fibrinous   Oasts   of  the   Intestines  are  not  rare  in  the 


THE   DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  293 

OX.  Specimens  of  considerable  length  are  sometimes 
described  as  parasites,  and  we  are  told  that  the  animal 
has  ''  passed  a  snake.^^  The  casts  are  flaky  on  the  surface, 
generally  have  been  thrown  out  from  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  small  intestines,  and  are  of  a  croupous  nature.  Hence, 
the  form  of  enteritis  in  which  they  are  expelled  is  some- 
times termed  Croupous  Enteritis.  It  is  less  acute  than 
the  other  form,  and  after  expulsion  of  the  false  mem- 
brane recovery  rapidly  takes  place.  The  treatment 
in  no  way  differs  from  that  of  the  ordinary  form  of  the 
disease. 

Intestinal  Apoplexy — Rupture  of  the  intestinal  blood- 
vessels is  rare  in  the  ox  except  in  blood  diseases.  It, 
however,  sometimes  results  from  injuries  and  in  inflamma- 
tion and  partial  obstruction.  The  blood  diffuses  between 
the  layers  of  the  mesentery.  Colicky  pains  are  present,  but 
no  diagnostic  symptoms.  In  the  '  Veterinarian,'  vol.  xlii, 
p.  768,  M.  Genee  records  a  case  of  enzootic  outbreak  of  this 
disorder  leading  to  sudden  death,  attributed  to  feeding  on 
the  refuse  of  beet-root. 

Perforation  or  Eupture  op  the  Intestines  may  be 
brought  about  by  external  injury,  ulceration,  the  giving 
way  of  the  disorganised  wall  of  the  bowel  during  opera- 
tions for  relief  of  hernia,  and  the  use  of  drastic  cathartics 
in  cases  of  intestinal  obstruction.  When  the  rupture  is 
large  the  signs  are  those  of  collapse,  but  when  it  is  small 
peritonitis  gradually  supervenes.  If  the  bowel  be  exposed 
and  rupture  take  place  catgut  sutures  may  be  inserted 
and  the  bowel  returned.  Cases  thus  treated  have  been 
known  to  do  well.  Injury  of  an  umbilical  or  ventral 
hernia  sometimes  causes  ulceration  of  the  skin  extending 
into  the  enclosed  bowel.  From  the  opening  thus  formed 
the  intestinal  contents  constantly  escape.  It  is  a  ^^ false 
anus/'  and  must  be  closed  either  by  ligature  or  suture. 

Rupture  op  the  Rectum  may  occur  in  cases  of  pro- 
lapsus, or  the  leg  of  the  foetus  may  be  passed  through 
the  wall  of  the  vagina  and  rectum  in  cases  of  difficult 
parturition.  These  cases  are  not  necessarily  fatal,  for  the 
terminal  portion  of   the  rectum  is   not  invested  by  peri- 


294  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

toneum,  and,  therefore,  the  faoces  do  not  pass  into  the 
peritoneal  sac.  Their  entry  into  the  wound  tends  to 
prevent  it  from  healing,  and  a  fistula  in  ano  or  recto-vaginal 
fistula  forms.  This  is  not  very  liable  to  take  place  in  the 
ox,  for  the  faeces  are  pultaceous.  The  presence  of  a  recto- 
vaginal fistula  gives  rise  to  passage  of  fseces  through  the 
vulval  opening,  also  chronic  irritation  of  the  generative 
passage,  and  the  opening  may  be  felt  on  exploration. 

Intestinal  Parasites  are  comparatively  rare  in  the  ox, 
and  seldom  give  rise  to  serious  disorder.  The  principal 
are  Ascaris  lumhricoides,  and  various  Strongyles.  Tania 
expansa  is  described  by  Law  as  causing  serious  indigestion 
and  abdominal  disturbance  in  America,  Australia,  and 
some  parts  of  Germany. 

Intestinal  Tumours  are  generally  fatty  on  the  peritoneal 
surface;  cancerous  when  projecting  into  the  intestinal 
tube,  hsemorrhoidal  when  in  the  rectum.  The  effects  of 
these  and  of  calculi  have  been  already  noticed. 

Malformation  or  the  Intestines. — Of  these  proctatresia 
or  infijpervious  anus  is  the  most  frequently  seen  in  calves. 
Sometimes  the  anal  opening  is  closed  by  skin  j  in  other 
cases  the  anus  is  perfectly  formed,  but  at  a  short  distance 
from  the  external  orifice  there  is  a  membranous  septum 
separating  the  passage  in  which  the  meconium  is  situated 
from  the  anus.  In  another  form  the  large  intestine  termi- 
nates in  a  cul'de-sac  in  the  posterior  part  of  the  abdomen. 
These  latter  cases  are  hopeless,  but  in  either  of  the  former 
relief  may  be  afforded  by  division  of  the  obstructing 
membrane  by  two  crucial  incisions.  Attention  is  called 
to  this  condition  by  violent  straining  of  the  young  animal, 
which  has  not  passed  fasces  since  birth.  The  first  milk 
excites  the  bowels  to  action  for  expulsion  of  the  meconium, 
but  this  relief  is  prevented. 

Mechanical  Distension  of  the  Rectum  with  hard  pellets  of 
meconium  is  sometimes  a  cause  of  similar  symptoms. 
The  accumulated  material  must  be  gradually  removed  with 
the  oiled  forefinger.  Sometimes  the  quantity  present  is 
enormous. 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM. 


295 


Section  2. — Op  the  Liver. 

In  tlie  ox  this  organ  is  large^  mainly  confined  to  tlie 
right  side,  has  rounded  margins,  and  is  scarcely  divided 
into  lobes,  but  a  fairly  large  caudate  lobe  is  present.  The 
excretory  apparatus  differs  from  that  of  the  horse  in  that  a 
gall-bladder  with  a  cystic  duct  is  present,  also  the  bile- 
duct  does  not  open  with  the  pancreatic,  but  terminates  by 
itself  at  a  distance  of  about  two  feet  from  the  pylorus. 
The  gall-bladder  lies  on  the  posterior  surface  of  the  liver, 
."with  its  fundus  projecting  downwards ;  it  rests  in  a  groove 


Fig.  59. — Liver  and  pancreas  of  ox,  with  excretory  apparatus,  c.  Pan- 
creatic duct.  d.  Gall-bladder,  e.  Common  bile-duct.  /.  Duodenum. 
(Simonds.) 

in  the  liver  substance,  but  is  not  surrounded  by  it  to 
such  an  extent  as  in  the  dog. 

Hepatitis,  inflammation  of  the  liver ,  is  sometimes  seen 
in  high-bred  plethoric  animals,  as  a  result  of  feeding  with 
an  excessive  amount  of  highly  stimulating  food,  associated 
with  want  of  exercise.  It  is  most  prevalent  in  hot  weather. 
It  is  also  attributed  to  changes  of  temperature  and  of 
food,  as  well  as  to  expose  of  various  kinds. 

The   Symptoms  of    some    forms  of    liver  disorder   are 


296  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

somewliat  obscure.  Yellowness  of  tlie  visible  mucous 
membranes  and  of  the  skin  is  considered  a  diagnostic  of 
derangement  of  tbe  bile-secreting  organ,  but  it  is  not 
always  so,  for  it  may  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  food, 
and  is  constantly  present  in  some  of  the  best  breeds. 
When  this  organ  is  inflamed  a  certain  amount  of  abdominal 
distension  is  observable,  and  the  animal  flinches,  moans, 
and  grinds  the  teeth,  when  pressure  is  applied  to  the  right 
side  over  the  seat  of  the  liver.  Its  functions  are  arrested ; 
thus,  the  secretion  of  bile  is  not  carried  on,  hence  the 
bowels  are  torpid  and  the  faeces  are  dry,  scanty,  and  of  a 
chocolate  colour;  generally  they  are  thickly  coated  with 
mucus.  Lying  continually  on  the  right  side  and  fainting  fits 
are  sometimes  present.  The  milk  is  yellow  and  scanty, 
and  its  cream  thick  and  ^'ropy."  There  are  occasional 
colicky  pains,  and  the  skin  is  harsh,  staring,  and  coated  with 
a  yellowish-browny  matter  (which  is  considered  a  favor- 
able sign) .  The  urine  is  excessively  yellow,  and  the  various 
mucous  membranes  are  all  more  or  less  tinged  with  the 
same  colour.  The  respiration  is  somewhat  impeded,  and 
the  pulse  is  soft,  weak,  and  generally  frequent.  Lame- 
ness of  the  right  fore  limb  has  not  yet  been  observed  in 
cases  of  this  kind  in  the  ox.  The  animal  is  very  dull,  as 
in  most  affections  of  this  organ. 

In  Chronic  cases,  with  the  generally  diffused  yellowness 
and  the  unthrifty  and  scurfy  state  of  the  skin,  and  the 
dry  clay-coloured  condition  of  the  faeces,  there  is  per- 
sistent dejection  and  falling  off  from  condition,  a  want  of  in- 
clination to  move.  The  pulse  and  respiration  are  unaffected. 
In  one  case  of  the  acute  disease  the  patient  was  so  violent 
that  it  was  thought  he  was  mad — the  head  extended, 
eye  fixed,  shoulders  cold,  belly  hot,  pulse  strong  and  rapid, 
striking  of  head  against  the  flank,  and  endeavouring  to 
bite  those  around.  Here,  on  Autopsy ,  '^  the  liver  appeared 
withered  and  dry,  as  if  it  had  been  exposed  during  several 
days  to  an  ardent  sun.'^  In  other  cases  we  may  find 
atrophy  of  the  organ,  the  areolar  elements  (Glisson^s 
capsule)  having  been  increased  in  size  at  the  expense 
of  the  more    important  secreting    part.      Sometimes  the 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  297 

liver  is  mucli  enlarged  and  softened,  as  a  result  of 
inflammation,  whilst,  in  other  cases,  abscesses  are 
present.  Inflammation  of  several  parts  of  the  liver 
simultaneously  is  not  infrequent,  and  this  may  lead 
to  multiple  abscesses.  Generally  the  peritoneal  invest- 
ment is  either  rendered  opaque  or  is  the  seat  of  deposits 
of  lymph.  Eemains  of  these  latter  indications  are  not 
infrequent  in  old  animals.  In  more  recent  cases  the 
accumulation  of  gelatinous  material  beneath  the  peri- 
toneum somewhat  obscures  the  normal  brown  chocolate 
colour. 

Treatment. — The  indications  in  cases  of  this  kind  are 
to  apply  external  stimulants  over  the  seat  of  the  diseased 
organ.  Administer  a  saline  cathartic,  which  will  act 
without  materially  affecting  the  liver,  while  it  will  also 
act  as  a  febrifuge.  Aconite  may  be  used  to  follow  this 
up  as  soon  as  any  severe  febrile  disorder  sets  in.  Of 
course  careful  nursing  is  necessary,  and  the  food,  when 
convalescence  has  set  in,  must  be  light  and  nutritious, 
but  in  small  quantity.  Enemas  must  be  utilised.  In  the 
chronic  form,  where  atrophy  has  occurred,  we  can  do  little 
except  give  an  occasional  liver  stimulant  to  rouse  the  torpid 
organ  into  activity,  at  least  so  much  of  it  as  remains  fit 
to  perform  its  duties. 

Congestion  op  the  Liver  is  manifested  by  dulness  suc- 
ceeding a  meal,  slight  interference  with  respiration, 
swelling  on  the  right  side  (which  is  painful),  constipation, 
and  a  little  yellowness  of  membranes.  This  must  be 
treated  by  a  laxative,  change  of  diet,  fresh  air,  and  some 
exercise.  It  is  generally  of  short  duration,  but  when  it 
occurs  frequently  may  give  rise  to  chronic  changes. 

HePATIRHCEA H^MOREHAGB     FROM     THE    LiVER RuPTURE 

OP  THE  Liver — occasionally  results  from  congestion  and  in 
cases  of  degenerative  changes  of  the  organ.  The  sym- 
ptoms are  simply  those  of  internal  abdominal  haemorrhage, 
rapid  sinking,  and  sometimes  abdominal  pain.  In  other 
cases  the  peritoneal  capsule  does  not  give  way,  but  the 
blood  accumulates  beneath  it.  In  the  latter,  recovery 
is   possible   if    the  animal    be  kept   very  quiet   and   the 


298  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

strengtli  supported,  and  subsequent  feeding  carefully 
regulated.  In  the  former  case  recovery  is  hopeless.  Any 
one  accustomed  to  examine  the  changes  which  the  liver 
undergoes  as  a  result  of  disease  will  be  aware  of  the 
very  considerable  absorption  of  liver  substance  which 
may  take  place  as  a  result  of  parasitic  invasion  or  of 
morbid  deposits,  without  the  function  of  the  organ  being 
materially  interfered  with.  It  seems  as  if  each  lobule 
were  an  independent  organ,  and  not  in  any  way  concerned 
in  the  state  of  its  fellows.  A  direct  consequence  of  this 
is  that  very  extensive  changes  of  this  nature  may  take 
place,  andno  appreciable  signs  of  them  be  manifested  during 
life;  of  these  changes  tubercular  are  most  frequent.  We 
find  also  on  record  ^'osseous  deposits,"  which,  however, 
hardly  answer  this  description.  Thus,  in  a  case  the 
post-mortem  examination  of  which  reads  very  like  that  of 
traumatic  pericarditis,  Mr.  Younghusband  describes  the 
liver  of  a  milch  cow,  "  which  was  three  times  the  size  of 
one  in  a  normal  state,  containing  in  its  substance  an  im- 
mense number  of  calcareous  deposits,  of  the  size  of  a 
horse  chestnut,  which,  when  crumbled  betwixt  the  finger 
and  thumb,  gave  a  feeling  of  sand  or  grit.  There  were 
some  dozens  of  these  deposits,  but  in  none  did  I  perceive 
anything  like  the  suppurative  process."  These  were 
perhaps  calcified  hydatids,  but  the  case  was  peculiar. 
The  enormous  extent  to  which  this  organ  may  become  in- 
vaded by  Echinococcus  veterinorum  is  satisfactorily  illus- 
trated by  a  case  recorded  by  Messrs.  East  and  Steel  in 
the  ^Veterinarian^  for  1878.  The  specimen  came  from  the 
Yale  of  Aylesbury,  where  parasitic  disorders  are  prevalent. 
Considerable  diminution  of  the  secreting  liver  structure 
results  in  advanced  cases  of  invasion  by  Fasciola  hepatica, 
in  consequence  of  thickening  of  the  walls  of  large  and 
small  bile- ducts,  the  result  of  irritation. 

Kamollissement  (softening  of  the  liver). — Enlargement 
with  structural  change  does  not  seem  so  frequent  as  we 
would  be  inclined  to  expect  from  the  frequency  of  exces- 
sive fattening  of  the  ox,  together  with  the  want  of  exercise 
during  preparation  for  exhibition  or  sale.      A  good  illus- 


THE   DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  299 

trative  case  of  fatty  liver  is  given  in  the  '  Transactions 
of  the  Veterinary  Medical  Association/  vol.  iii,  p.  234,  by 
Mr.  Read. 

Interesting  cases  of  Congenital  Hepatic  Hernia  are  given 
in  the  '  Veterinary  Journal,'  vol.  iv,  p.  344  and  423,  by  Mr. 
Swarry  of  Selby  and  Mr.  Kirk.  In  them  it  seems  a  por- 
tion of  the  right  lobe  of  the  liver  was  connected  with  the 
posterior  part  of  the  lang  by  the  right  lateral  ligament, 
there  being  a  foramen  through  the  diaphragm. 

Addendum  1. 

The  gall-bladder  of  the  ox  has  a  capacity  of  several 
ounces,  and  its  duct  decreases  in  size  somewhat  after  its 
commencement.  The  bile  of  the  ox  is  of  a  greenish  colour, 
and  consists  of  the  following : — ^Water,  90*44  per  cent. ; 
biliary  and  fatty  matter,  8  per  cent. ;  vesicular  mucus,  '30 
per  cent.;  osmazone,  chloride  and  lactate  of  soda,  '74  per 
cent. ;  sodium,  '41  per  cent.  ;  phosphates  of  lime  and  soda, 
•11  per  cent.  (Berzelius).  Diseases  of  this  excretory 
apparatus  have  been  observed,  but  are  almost  always 
secondary  in  their  character,  due  to  disease  of  the  bowels 
or  biliary  ducts.  The  bile  accumulated  in  the  gall-bladder 
is  liable  to  undergo  inspissation  and  to  form  biliary 
calculi.  These  consist  of  the  bile  salts,  also  pigment  and 
cholesterin,  arranged  in  concentric  layers  around  a  small 
mass  previously  formed,  which  acts  as  a  nucleus.  .  They 
vary  in  form,  but  have  rounded  margins,  and  in  size 
upwards  to  the  average  size  of  a  walnut.  They  have  a 
low  specific  gravity,  and  so  float  on  bile.  Often  they  are 
extremely  numerous.  So  long  as  they  remain  in  the  gall- 
bladder they  seem  to  cause  no  inconvenience,  but  during 
their  passage  through  the  central  portion  of  the  cystic 
duct  and  the  terminal  part  of  the  common  bile  duct,  cause 
excruciating  agony,  due  to  spasm  of  the  muscular  fibre  of 
the  wall  of  the  duct.  These  cannot  be  distinguished  from 
ordinary  colicky  pains,  our  only  aid  to  diagnosis  being  the 
occurrence  of  some  biliary  calculi  in  the  faeces. 


300  bovine  pathology. 

Addendum  2. 

The  Pancreas  is  large  and  lies  to  the  right  of  the  abdomen 
in  the  root  of  the  mesentery ;  its  ducts  open  separately 
into  the  duodenum  at  a  distance  of  over  three  feet  from  the 
pylorus. 

Scirrhous,  tubercular  and  cancerous  deposit,  hypertrophy, 
and  abscess  of  this,  organ  are  described,  but  nothing  more 
seems  to  be  known  about  these  disorders  than  that,  when 
chronic,  they  give  rise  to  malnutrition,  since  they  interfere 
with  the  due  elaboration  of  fat-forming  material.  Calculi 
in  the  pancreas  or  its  duct  are  occasionally  found.  They 
are  generally  of  a  milky-white  colour,  dense  and  rough, 
and  about  as  big  as  a  pea. 

Section  3. — Of  the  Peritoneum. 

This  membrane  of  the  ox  is  only  remarkable  as  forming 
a  large  and  well- developed  omentum  major,  which  generally 
contains  much  fat. 

Peritonitis — inflammation  of  the  lining  memhrane  of  the 
abdomen — is  very  rare  in  the  ox,  and  we  have  often  above 
had  occasion  to  remark  the  impunity  with  which  very 
formidable  operations  may  be  performed  in  which  it  is 
subjected  to  injury.  The  various  abdominal  sections  and 
castration  afPect  it,  and  it  is  more  or  less  involved  in 
inflammations  of  various  abdominal  viscera,  but  its  disease 
passes  unnoticed  in  the  general  disorder,  and  it  is  only  after 
wounds  and  occasionally  climatic  changes  that  it  thus  pri- 
marily becomes  inflamed.  Then  the  animal  suffers  from 
obscure  pain,  and  is,  therefore,  dull  and  anxious,  looking 
round  occasionally  at  the  flank,  moaning,  grinding  the  teeth, 
stamping,  and  with  hind  limbs  trembling.  The  bowels  do 
not  act,  the  pulse  has  the  hardness  characteristic  of  inflam- 
mations of  serous  membranes,  the  extremities  are  cold, 
and  these  cases  rapidly  terminate  fatally.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  respiration  is  characteristically  thoracic, 
the  diaphragm  being  as  much  as  possible  relieved  from  its 
duties,  which  cause  extra  pain. 


THE    DIGESTIVE    SYSTEM.  301 

Post-mortem  examination. — Sometimes  we  find  after 
slaughter  of  a  healthy  animal  that  parts  of  the  peritoneum 
are  united  by  adhesions,  while  others  are  opaque  and 
flocculent  from  the  presence  of  white  shreds  of  organised 
lymph.  These  are  indications  of  a  previous  attack  of  this 
disease.  In  recent  cases  the  membrane  is  in  various  parts 
reddened,  opaque,  and  hidden  by  lymphy  deposits,  which 
bind  the  different  abdominal  organs  together  and  vary  in 
the  degree  of  organization  according  to  their  age.  These 
lesions  are  most  marked  around  the  point  of  injury.  The 
peritoneal  sac  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  fluid, 
which  is  straw-coloured,  milky,  or  sanguineous.  Of 
traumatic  lesions  giving  rise  to  this  disease  passage  of 
sharp  foreign  bodies  from  the  stomachs  is  not  infrequent, 
hence  we  generally  find  that  peritonitis  is  present  in  cases 
of  traumatic  pericarditis,  bringing  about  union  of  the  reti- 
culum with  the  diaphragm,  so  that  a  cyst-like  passage  is 
formed,  which  generally  contains  a  milky  serous  fluid  or 
a  blood-clot. 

Treatment. — That  suggested  for  enteritis.  As  in  that 
affection  cathartics  should  not  be  administered,  for  increased 
peristalsis  will  give  rise  to  increased  irritation  of  the 
inflamed  peritoneum.  Opium  is  specially  indicated  to 
check  peristalsis. 

Ascites  {dropsy  of  the  abdomen). — This  is  sometimes 
the  result  of  acute  inflammatory  disease  of  the  peritoneum, 
but  more  frequently  of  general  debility  or  of  mechanical 
impediment  to  return  of  venous  blood,  such  as  exists  in  liver 
or  heart  diseases,  also  tumours  pressing  on  vena  portse. 
It  is  a  complication  of  other  dropsical  disorders.  It  is 
not  frequent  in  the  adult,  but  is  met  with  in  obstetric 
practice,  since  congenital  ascites  is  an  impediment  to 
expulsion  of  the  affected  animal  from  the  womb.  In  these 
cases  it  seems  to  result  from  debility  or  scrofulous  disease 
of  the  parent ;  the  sickly  foetus  may  therefore  be  sacrificed, 
the  fluid  being  evacuated  either  by  direct  incision  with  the 
concealed  knife  through  the  abdominal  walls,  or  by  the 
passage  of  a  special  long  trocar  and  canula  through  the 
chest  into  the  abdomen. 


302  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

Symptoms. — Of  the  acquired  forms  are  abdominal  disten- 
sion, and  on  auscultation  a  wave  of  fluid  may  be  detected 
striking  against  tbe  abdominal  wall  when  the  opposite 
side  is  percussed.  Anasarcous  swellings  appear  on  the 
abdomen  and  underneath  the  chest.  Eespiration  is 
thoracic,  and  there  is  gradually  increasing  anaemia  with  all 
its  characteristic  symptoms  (see  page  92). 

Treatment. — While  endeavouring  to  remove  the  originat- 
ing disease  we  must  do  all  in  our  power  to  sustain  the 
strength  of  the  patient  by  stimulant  tonics,  as  beer  or 
gentian  with  nitrous  ether ;  also  liberal  diet  of  not  too 
watery  composition.  Iron  salts  (as  the  iodide)  also  are 
indicated,  and  may  be  alternated  with  vegetable  tonics. 
Digitalis  proves  useful  primarily  as  a  sedative,  but  second- 
arily by  acting  on  the  kidneys.  Where  the  distension  is 
very  great  paracentesis  abdominis j  "tapping  the  belly,^' 
will  afford  temporary  relief.  A  small  trocar-and-canula 
is  used,  and  the  puncture  is  made  just  a  little  to  one  side 
of  the  umbilicus,  the  instrument  being  inserted  gently. 
The  reason  of  the  obstinate  resistance  to  absorption  is 
that  the  peritoneal  stomata  become  blocked  up  by  false 
membranes  and  plugs  of  lymph.  Besides  the  diseases 
indicated  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  peritoneum  is 
often  one  of  the  seats  of  '^  grapy ''  deposits  of  scrofulous 
origin.  These  give  rise  to  subacute  inflammation  and 
ascites.  Opacity  is  generally  produced  in  the  opposite 
portion  of  the  peritoneum  against  which  they  rub. 


THE    RESPIRATORY    APPARATUS .  303 


CHAPTER  v.— DISEASES  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY 
APPARATUS. 

The  calibre  of  tLe  air-passages  of  tlie  ox  is  not  so  great 
as  that  of  the  horse;  the  lungs  are  practically  smaller, 
and  M.  Colin  has  shown  us  that  an  ox  breathes  only  about 
82  per  cent,  of  the  amount  of  air  required  by  a  horse, 
throwing  off  a  proportionately  small  amount  of  carbonic 
anhydride.  This  would  lead  us  to  anticipate  that  the 
ordinary  diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs  of  the  ox  are 
less  numerous  and  important  than  those  of  the  horse.  It 
adapts  the  animal  less  for  rapid  and  prolonged  locomotion, 
and  is  in  accordance  with  the  conditious  of  other  parts  of 
the  system ;  thus,  the  large  gastric  mass  of  the  ox  prevents 
rapid  exertion  after  a  meal,  and  the  full  conditions  of  these 
organs  remains  for  a  long  time.  During  this  the  action 
of  the  diaphragm  must  be,  to  a  certain  extent,  impeded  as 
far  as  its  respiratory  functions  are  concerned ;  it  facilitates 
regurgitation  constantly  during  rumination.  Again,  its 
position  is  more  upright.  The  conformation  of  the 
skeleton  of  the  ox  gives  us  information  that  he  is  less 
adapted  for  respiratory  emergencies  than  the  horse. 
Ordinary  respirations  of  the  ox  are  frequent  and  not 
deep,  15  to  18  in  the  adult,  18  to  20  in  the  young  animal ; 
they  are  liable  to  considerable  increase  in  number  even 
during  health.  Similarly  the  healthy  cough  of  the  ox  is 
rather  short  and  weak.  The  horse  suffers  so  frequently  from 
disorders  of  the  respiratory  organs  because  he  is  pushed 
to  extremes  of  exertion,  is  pampered  in  hot,  close,  and 
improperly  ventilated  stables,  and  is  subjected  to  sudden 
changes  of  temperature  of  the  surrounding  medium,  and  also 
exposure  to  draughts,  and  under  certain  circumstances  to 
extremes  of  weather.     With  the  skin  acting  profusely  he 


804  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

is  left  standing  in  a  current  of  air,  and  is  otherwise 
exposed.  The  working  ox  is  somewhat  similarly  treated, 
and  hence  of  all  bovines  is  most  liable  to  diseases  of  respira- 
tory organs,  but  he  is  not  by  any  means  pampered,  and 
seldom  overworked.  Cattle,  especially  when  fat,  are 
sometimes  overdriven,  but  ordinarily  are  in  a  state  of 
quietude  in  the  stalls  of  not  overdosed  shippons  or  in 
pastures.  Under  these  circumstances  traumatic  causes 
are  the  main  influences  which  generate  diseases  of  the 
breathing  apparatus.  Dairy  cows  and  prize  fattening  beasts 
are  certainly  continuously  subjected  to  the  close  and  foul 
atmosphere  of  byres,  but  they  are  not  exercised  and  do 
not  change  from  heat  to  cold,  so  the  predisposition  engen- 
dered by  ammoniacal  fumes  and  constant  inspiration  of 
warm  air  laden  with  impurities  seldom  receives  the 
exciting  cause  necessary  to  give  rise  to  acute  pulmonary 
disorder.  The  effect  is  more  marked  in  arousing  heredi- 
tary or  acquired  tendency  to  scrofulous  disease,  especially 
phthisis.  We  have  previously  made  some  general  remarks 
on  the  nature  of  respiratory  processes,  but  must  now  recall 
to  our  minds  certain  special  means  of  diagnosis,  which 
acquire  particular  importance  in  relation  to  the  diseases 
under  consideration. 

Auscultation  depends  on  the  motion  of  air  through 
the  air-passages,  and  the  movements  of  the  chest  and 
other  parts  during  breathing.  It  is  termed  immediate 
if  the  ear  is  applied  directly  to  the  surface,  mediate 
if  the  acoustic  connection  is  indirect.  The  former  method 
is  open  to  the  objection  that  the  surface  is  often 
not  fit  for  contact,  as  when  the  animal  is  covered  with 
lice.  It  is  most  useful  as  avoiding  extra  friction  sounds, 
which  result  from  the  intervention  of  a  foreign  body 
between  the  ear  and  the  chest.  Generally  a  handker- 
chief is  placed  on  the  surface,  and  a  little  practice  enables 
the  observer  to  automatically  ignore  any  complications 
due  to  its  presence.  The  stethoscope  is  a  long  tube  with 
a  trumpet-shaped  extremity  for  even  contact  with  the 
surface,  and  an  ear-piece ;  it  is  seldom  used  in  veterinary 
practice.      It  is  an  artificial  prolongment  of  the  external 


THE    RESPIRATOEY    APPARATUS.  305 

auditory  canal.  Auscultation  is  resorted  to  in  cardiac  and 
certain  abdominal  diseases^  but  is  mainly  used  for  deter- 
mining the  states  of  the  lungs  and  air-passages.  These, 
especially  the  former,  are  less  accessible  than  in  man,  on 
account  of  the  greater  bulk  of  surrounding  substances,  the 
pectoral  position  of  the  fore  extremities,  and  the  restlessness 
of  the  patient.  Also  the  animal  cannot  be  made  to  give 
us  the  various  phases  of  respiration  on  demand.  Though 
our  diagnoses  cannot,  therefore,  be  so  exact  as  those  of 
human  practitioners,  auscultation  is  most  valuable  to  us. 

Nasal  sounds. — The  normal  rushing  sound  of  air  passing 
through  the  nasal  chambers  is  interfered  with  in  cases  of 
tumours  and  other  obstructions  of  these  passages;  also 
when  the  mucous  lining  membrane  is  diseased.  The  ster- 
torous character  of  breathing,  as  seen  in  coma,  depends 
on  the  state  of  the  posterior  nares  and  velum  palati. 

Laryngeal  sounds. — The  passage  of  air  through  the 
healthy  organ  gives  rise  to  a  rushing  sound.  In  cases  of 
thickening  or  impediment  the  sounds  known  as  roaring 
and  whistling  (which  are  familiar  to  us)  will  be  distin- 
guished. A  peculiar  crowing  sound  is  considered  dia- 
gnostic of  "  croup.^^  The  voice,  of  which  this  organ  is  the 
seat,  is  sometimes  modified ;  its  tones  are  not  varied,  for 
the  organ  is  very  simple,  but  it  is  not  difficult  to  distin- 
guish the  peculiar  lowing  indicative  of  pain. 

In  the  trachea  and  bronchial  tubes  we  still  find  the  rush- 
ing sound ;  in  health  it  is  prolonged,  almost  uniform  in 
expiration  and  inspiration,  and  with  an  even  transition 
through  its  various  modulations ;  under  disease  it  may 
become  the  mucous  rale,  when  fluid  exists  in  these  tubes 
in  excess,  and  air  bubbles  through  it,  the  cavernous  rale, 
when  the  air  rushes  from  a  comparatively  small  tube  into 
a  large  space  containing  fluid,  so  that  there  is  a  special 
gurgling  sound.  This,  of  course,  can  only  be  heard  in 
connection  with  disease  in  the  lungs;  it  is  found  when 
a  cavity  has  been  formed  in  those  organs  by  suppuration, 
or  by  bronchial  dilatation.  Sibilus,  when  the  air  rushes 
through  small  tubes  with  a  dry  condition  of  their  mucous 
lining,  such  as  is  seen  in  incipient  inflammation.  Rhonchus 

20 


306  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

is  a  similar  state  when  the  larger  tubes  are  involved.  Other 
refinements  are  distinguishable,  but  their  characters  are 
rather  indefinite.  The  Vesicular  sound  observed  during 
health  depends  upon  the  tension  of  the  walls  of  the  air-cells 
during  inspiration,  together  with  the  rush  of  air  through 
the  narrow  terminations  of  the  bronchial  tubes  into  these 
dilatations,  consequently  it  is  appreciable  also  to  a  modified 
degree  during  expiration.  It  can  only  be  heard  in  some  parts 
of  the  lungs,  for  it  is  liable  to  be  obscured  by  the  bronchial 
rushing  sound.  It  is  most  perceptible  in  young  animals, 
for  with  age  the  cells  are  much  dilated,  and  the  transitions 
from  the  tubes  less  abrupt.  Determination  of  this  sound 
is  important,  as  informing  us  of  the  pervious  condition  of 
the  air-passages  and  the  air-cells.  It  is  early  supplanted 
in  cases  of  inflammation  of  the  intimate  structure  of  the 
lungs  by  a  peculiar  crackling  sound  known  as  crepitation. 
The  intensity  of  these  sounds  varies  with  disease ;  when  a 
part  of  the  lung  is  lost  for  functional  purposes  the  parts 
which  remain  pervious  give  increased  sound.  Solidifica- 
tion and  deposition  between  a  bronchus  and  the  ear  may 
render  its  rushing  sound  more  evident.  In  other  cases 
there  is  partial  or  complete  loss  of  sound,  due  to  an  im- 
pervious condition  of  the  passages,  as  in  lung  consolidation 
or  collapse,  or  else  to  the  presence  of  some  bad  conductor 
of  the  sound,  as  in  cases  of  hydrothorax.  Our  diagnosis 
of  the  extent  of  disease  also  depends  upon  the  stationary 
or  migratory  condition  of  the  sounds,  as  shown  by  frequent 
examinations.  The  movements  may  be  either  abrupt,  as 
when  some  obstruction  has  been  removed  by  coughing,  or 
gradual,  as  in  hydrothorax. 

The  pleura,  when  inflamed,  is  the  seat  of  the  friction 
sound,  due  either  to  two  dry  surfaces  moving  in  contact 
with  one  another,  or  to  a  similar  application  of  two  sur- 
faces roughened  by  deposition  of  false  membranes. 

Examination  of  the  Chest  of  the  Ox,  by  Ausculta- 
tion.— The  extra  lobe  of  the  right  lung  extends  rather  in 
front  of  the  heart.  The  thorax  is  wide  and  rounded  pos- 
teriorly, but  the  diaphragm  bulges  into  it  to  a  marked  ex- 
tent, and  gains  firm  attachment  to  the  inner  surface  of  the 


THE    EESPIEATORY    APPARATUS.  307 

last  rib  but  one^  so  tbat  the  last  intercostal  space  is  not  lined 
by  pleura.  The  rumen^  therefore,  giving  its  various  sounds, 
occupies  a  large  part  of  the  posterior  division  of  the  left 
side,  while  the  liver  lies  on  the  right,  and  gives  an  area 
of  dulness.  *^'We  must  determine  the  natural  sound 
when  the  animal  ruminates,  which  may  be  heard  at  the 
lower  part  of  the  chest  at  the  level  of  the  xiphoid  carti- 
lage of  the  sternum.  It  resembles  the  gurgling  sound 
when  fluid  passes  from  a  bottle,  and  doubtless  is  due  to 
the  liquids  in  the  reticulum;  since  cattle,  when  sick,  do 
not  generally  ruminate,  this  noise  will  not  be  confounded 
with  abnormal  sounds.  Nevertheless,  we  have  thought 
right  to  note  it  here.  We  must  also  distinguish  a  crepi- 
tation with  a  frothy  sounds  which  originates  in  the  rumen 
when  its  muscular  walls  contract;  it  is  audible  at  the 
postero-superior  part  of  the  left  side  of  the  chest^^ 
(Delafond).  Since  the  shoulder  occupies  the  anterior 
part  of  the  lateral  surface  of  the  chest  as  far  back  as  the 
fourth  rib,  and  the  diaphragm  bulges  posteriorly,  the  area 
over  which  auscultation  can  be  profitably  performed  in  the 
ox  is  very  limited.  However,  the  shoulder  may  be  drawn 
forwards  to  a  certain  extent,  so  that  even  the  first  rib  may 
be  felt  from  behind,  and  considerable  care  will  enable  us 
to  distinguish  lung  sounds  in  the  posterior  region. 

The  lateral  surface  of  the  chest  is  divided  into  superior, 
middle,  and  inferior  thirds.  ''  Right  side. — In  the  superior 
region  the  vesicular  sound  is  well  marked  from  behind  the 
shoulder  to  the  level  of  the  tenth  rib,  from  which  it  gradually 
decreases  in  intensity  to  be  lost  opposite  the  eleventh.  In 
the  median  region  a  loud  and  sometimes  rather  rude  re- 
spiratory murmur  is  heard  over  the  fourth  and  three  fol- 
lowing ribs,  which,  however,  gradually  decreases  from  the 
seventh,  and  is  lost  over  the  tenth  or  eleventh.  In  the 
lower  region  the  sound  may  be  said  to  be  bronchial  over 
the  fourth  and  fifth  ribs,  evidently  on  account  of  the  con- 
siderable tube  passing  to  the  fourth  lobe  of  the  right  lung. 
From  the  sixth  to  the  ninth  rib  it  is  vesicular,  and  its  force 
decreases  from  before  backwards.  Left  side. — The  superior 
region  simply  repeats  that  of  the  right  side.      In  the  median 


308  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

region  the  only  difference  is  that  the  sound  is  more  feeble 
over  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  ribs.  In  the  inferior  region 
a  feeble  respiratory  murmur  is  heard  over  the  fourth  rib  ; 
this  increases  over  the  fifth  and  sixth,  and  then  decreases 
as  far  as  the  eighth  or  ninth  ■'^  (Gamgee).  Delafond  warns 
us  against  misinterpreting  the  crepitating  sound,  which 
results  from  the  looseness  of  the  areolar  tissue  beneath 
the  skin  of  the  chest  of  the  ox.  And  Gamgee  suggests 
that  useful  information  may  be  gained  by  auscultating  the 
chest  of  the  ox  from  below  through  the  sternum,  since  so 
much  of  the  lung  is  inferiorly  placed. 

Peecussion. — Applying  blows  to  the  surfaco  in  a  special 
manner,  we  have  already  seen,  is  useful  in  diagnosis  of 
tympany.  It  is  direct  or  indirect.  In  the  former  case 
the  ends  of  the  fingers  brought  together  are  sharply 
applied  to  a  part,  generally  to  the  skin  rendered  tense 
over  a  bone,  as  a  rib,  or  the  nasals.  It  is  possible  to  de- 
termine, from  the  resulting  sound,  whether  the  cavity 
within  is  empty  or  blocked  up  by  some  material  of  a  solid 
or  liquid  nature.  The  healthy  resonance  of  the  chest  is 
very  characteristic,  and  is  most  marked  over  the  course  of 
the  bronchi  and  larger  bronchial  tubes.  Dulness  on  per- 
cussion indicates  consolidation  or  accumulation  of  fluid  in 
the  pleural  sac. 

Percussion  of  the  Chest  of  the  Ox,  "  Left  side.— The 

superior  region  is  very  resonant  over  the  eighth,  ninth, 
and  tenth  ribs.  If  it  be  struck  very  gently  between  the 
latter  and  the  twelfth  rib,  the  diminished  resonance  of 
the  posterior  border  of  the  lung  may  still  be  brought 
out,  though,  if  struck  at  all  forcibly  in  this  region,  a 
tympanic  sound  is  produced,  due  to  gas  in  the  rumen. 
The  median  region  is  very  resonant  over  the  fifth, 
sixth,  and  seventh  ribs,  much  less  so  ov^r  the  eighth 
and  ninth,  and  quite  dull  over  the  lower  third  of  the 
tenth  and  half  the  eleventh ;  this  dulness  proceeds  from 
the  abdominal  organs.  The  lower  region,  unlike  in 
the  horse,  shows  considerable  resonance  over  the  fourth, 
fifth,  and  sixth  ribs,  from  this  part  lying  over  the  anterior 
lobes  of  the  right  and  left  lungs,  which  almost  completely 


THE    EESPIKATOEY    APPARATUS.  309 

envelope  tlie  heart.  From  the  seventh  to  the  ninth  ribs 
the  resonance  diminishes  and  is  entirely  lost  in  the  lower 
fourth  of  the  latter,  as  well  as  over  all  the  ribs  behind  it. 
In  young  and  emaciated  subjects,  by  drawing  the  limb 
forcibly  backwards,  and  applying  the  pleximeter  as  firmly 
as  possible  over  the  first  two  ribs,  a  clear  sound  may  be 
obtained.  Right  side. — The  resonance  of  the  right  side 
differs  little  from  that  of  the  left ;  the  resonance  sometimes 
being  perceptibly  less  posteriorly,  on  account  of  the  pre- 
sence of  the  liver.  In  very  thin  animals  a  clear  sound  is 
produced  by  percussion  in  the  fossae  of  the  scapula/' 
(Gamgee). 

Manipulation. — Pressure  on  the  intercostal  space  causes 
flinching  and  other  manifestations  of  pain  in  pleurisy  and 
pleuro-pneumonia.  A  fractured  condition  of  the  rib  and 
the  presence  of  a  needle  which  has  migrated  from  the 
reticulum  have  been  determined  by  this  means. 

Siiccussion  and  Mensuration  have  not  yet  been  found  of 
much  value  in  cattle  disorders. 

The  anterior  nares  have  no  false  nostril,  and  are  con- 
nected with  the  upper  lip  by  the  smooth  humid  pad 
which  is  termed  the  muffle.  The  organ  of  Jacobson 
runs  from  the  anterior  part  of  the  mouth  to  that  of  the 
nasal  chamber.  In  consequence  of  separation  of  the 
lower  margin  of  the  vomer  from  the  palatine  suture  the 
nasal  chambers  communicate  posteriorly,  so  that  we  can 
speak  only  of  one  posterior  naris  opening  into  the  pharynx. 
The  facial  sinuses  are  very  extensive,  and  separate  the 
outer  from  the  inner  plate  of  the  frontal  bone  everywhere, 
except  at  a  point  on  either  side  of  the  centre  of  the  fore- 
head. They  pass  into  the  horn  cores,  rendering  them 
hollow,  and  through  the  parietal  bones,  and  partly  into  the 
occipital.  The  maxillary  portion  is  prolonged  into  the 
bony  palate.*  The  nasal  peak  is  trifid.  There  are  described 
three  turbinated  bones,  but  of  these  the  one  known  as  the 
middle  is  simply  the  great  ethmoid  cell  very  much 
enlarged.  The  lower  margin  of  the  vomer  is  remarkably 
sharp.  The  posterior  nares,  as  in  other  ruminants,  are 
very  deep. 


310  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

The  muffle  becomes  involved  in  certain  exanthemata, 
for  it  may  be  the  seat  of  eruption.  Its  condition  is  a  useful 
but  not  infallible  guide  in  determining  the  health  of  the 
animal,  since  during  fever  it  becomes  dry.  The  pro- 
trusible  tongue  is  capable  of  removing  excess  of  moisture 
from  this  organ  and  the  nostrils.  The  anterior  naris  is 
less  liable  to  laceration  than  that  of  the  horse.  The 
Schneiderian  membrane,  as  seen  through  it,  is  of  a  red- 
dish colour,  but  varies  much  in  shade  and  humidity  with 
the  state  of  the  health. 

Catarrh — Flux  from  the  nostrils — is  due  either  to  conges- 
tion or  inflammation  of  the  Schneiderian  membrane.  Also, 
as  a  rule,  the  lining  membrane  of  the  nasal  sinuses  and 
those  of  the  pharynx  and  larynx  are,  to  a  certain  degree, 
involved.  Is  most  frequent  in  spring,  when  east  winds 
are  prevalent,  and  when  animals  are  suddenly  exposed  to 
extremes  of  wet  and  cold  after  having  been  accustomed  to 
shelter.  It  may  arise  from  dampness  of  the  byres  in 
which  cattle  are  kept,  or  exposure  to  draughts.  Animals 
debilitated  by  previous  disease  are  especially  prone  to  this 
disorder.  It  is  more  frequent  in  young  beasts  than  old, 
and  sometimes  is  attributable  to  the  "  dust  and  gravel 
of  the  road"  (Youatt).  It  may  be  due  to  certain 
specific  conditions  of  the  atmosphere,  when  it  assumes  an 
epizootic  or  enzootic  form  (see  Influenza).  Then  it  is 
excessively  debilitating,  and  under  ordinary  conditions  it 
reduces  the  strength  of  the  patient,  and  on  this  account 
as  well  as  because  it  is  often  a  forerunner  of  more  serious 
disorder,  it  is  important,  and  requires  prompt  and 
judicious  treatment. 

Symptoms. — In  some  cases  simply  a  discharge  from  the 
nostrils,  with  dulness,  but  generally  slight  fever,  is 
present,  with  the  usual  signs  of  ill  health.  The  Schnei- 
derian membrane  is  reddened  and  turgid.  At  first  dry,  it 
soon  gives  a  watery  discharge,  which  later  becomes  of 
a  thick  mucous  character,  and  afterwards  muco-purulent. 
Sneezing  is  generally  present,  as  also  is  cough,  which  is 
especially  marked  when  there  is  sore  throat,  as  denoted  by 
pain  on  manipulation,  swelling,  and  difficulty  in  swallowing. 


THE    RESPIRATOEY    APPARATTTS.  311 

The  conjunctiva  is  more  or  less  congested,  whicli  leads  to 
lachrymation  and  accumulation  of  mucus  at  the  inner 
canthus.  A  profuse  mucous  discharge  from  the  eyes 
may  afterwards  set  in.  Generally  these  symptoms  subside 
in  two  or  three  days,  but  sometimes  they  become  modified 
to  those  indicative  of  laryngitis. 

Treatment. — House  the  animal  in  a  well-ventilated 
place,  and  nurse.  Counteract  all  such  of  the  causes  as 
are  in  operation  as  much  as  possible ;  especially  place  in 
fresh  air  rather  than  in  a  close  ammoniacal  atmosphere. 
Steam  the  nostrils  either  by  holding  the  head  over  hot 
washes,  or  by  fixing  on  a  nose- bag  containing  sawdust  or 
chaff  soaked  constantly  in  boiling  water,  or  by  Armatage's 
steam  douche,  which  consists  of  an  india-rubber  tube 
attached  to  the  spout  of  a  tea  kettle,  the  free  end  being 
brought  towards  the  animal^s  nostrils  when  the  vapour 
begins  to  escape  (see  Fig.  9).  A  febrifuge  dose  of 
Epsom  salts,  together  with  a  diffusible  stimulant,  may  be 
given,  and  the  animal  allowed  nitrated  water  to  drink. 
Altogether  the  treatment  of  simple  catarrh  is  more  a 
matter  of  nursing  than  of  medicine. 

Epistaxis — Bleeding  from  the  nostrils — is  sometimes  a 
symptom  of  serious  blood  disorders  where  ulceration  or 
rupture  of  blood-vessels  of  the  Schneiderian  membrane  is 
present.  It  is  seen  as  a  disease  per  se  in  working  oxen, 
in  which  exposure  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  together  with 
laborious  exercise,  have  given  rise  to  congestion  of  the 
vessels  of  the  {Schneiderian  membrane  with  subsequent 
rupture  of  their  walls.  Sometimes  it  results  from  injury, 
especially  when  there  is  fracture  of  the  nasal  bones.  The 
haemorrhage  may  be  somewhat  profuse.  Under  ordinary 
circumstances  it  will  cease  spontaneously,  but  sometimes 
cold-water  applications,  styptic  injections,  or  plugging  the 
nostrils  are  necessary.  These  cases  require  careful  exami- 
nation, for  the  haemorrhage  may  be  from  some  more 
important  membranes  than  that  lining  the  nostrils.  Some- 
times it  results  from  Polypus  in  the  nasal  chamber.  Such 
cases  are  very  rare.  Youatt  relates  one  in  which,  while 
the  pedicle  might  be  traced  into  the  nasal  chamber,  the  main 


312  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

part  of  the  tumour  hung  down  in  the  pharynx  and  acted 
as  an  impediment  to  swallowing.  Exploration  was  made 
through  the  mouth,  and  the  tumour  (which  weighed 
nearly  half  a  pound),  removed  by  torsion.  The  ecraseur 
may  be  used  for  such  cases,  or  a  ligature  fixed  round  the 
pedicle  (see  Pharyngeal  Polypus). 

Paeasites. — Youatt  mentions  the  occasional  entry  of 
leeches  from  stagnant  water.  They  gain  access  to  the 
nasal  chamber  through  the  anterior  nares  when  the 
animal  is  drinking.  After  they  have  gorged  their  fill  they 
will  loosen  their  hold  and  be  expelled  by  sneezing,  except 
when  in  the  superior  part  of  the  nasal  chamber.  They 
cause  considerable  haemorrhage,  and  may  be  removed  by 
injections  of  salt  and  water. 

Other  foreign  bodies  may  become  fixed  in  the  nasal 
chamber,  or  the  nasal  sinuses  may  be  diseased,  giving 
rise  to  Nasal  Gleet,  but  this  is  rare  in  the  ox  as  compared 
with  the  horse,  for  he  is  less  liable  to  injuries  of  the 
facial  bones,  and  can  expel  matters  returned  by  vomition 
through  the  mouth. 

Laryngitis — Inflammation  of  the  larynx — is  a  sequela  of 
catarrh  or  of  bronchitis,  but  may  exist  as  a  primary 
disease.  Besides  the  general  signs  of  inflammation, 
the  pulse  has  a  peculiarly  hard  character,  the  throat  is 
swollen,  and  the  muzzle  protruded  ;  considerable  pain  is 
evinced  on  pressure,  and  a  dry,  hard,  paroxysmal  cough 
may  be  originated  in  this  way,  or  occur  spontaneously. 
Also  there  is  profuse  discharge  of  saliva  from  the  mouth, 
and  difficulty  and  pain  in  swallowing  (sometimes  com- 
plete inability).  There  is  discharge  from  the  nostrils, 
and  the  thickening  of  the  laryngeal  mucous  membrane 
gives  rise  to  extreme  difficulty  in  breathing,  and  an  early 
prostration  of  strength,  such  as  results  from  defective 
oxygen  supply.  This  disease  may  be  attributed  to  the 
action  of  those  causes  which,  under  other  circumstances, 
give  rise  to  catarrh.  Death  may  occur  either  through 
effusion  around  the  rima  glottidis,  spasm  of  the  larynx,  or 
extension  of  inflammation.  A  permanent  thickening  of  the 
lining  mucous  membrane  of   the  larynx  is  likely  to  result. 


THE    EESPIRATORY    APPARATUS. 


313 


Treatment. — Where  the  breathing  is  excessively  diffi- 
cult, tracheotomy  should  be  at  once  resorted  to,  as  this  is 
a  most  valuable  means  of  placing  the  larynx  in  a  state  of 
rest.  The  throat  should  be  freely  fomented,  and  the 
head  steamed  by  either  of  the  methods  previously  mentioned. 
Nutrient  enemas  may  be  administered,  and  a  free  supply 
of  nitrated  water  allowed.  Administration  of  drenches  is 
not  advisable,  for  the  pharynx  is  involved  in  inflammation, 
and  the  difficulty  in  swallowing  may  lead  to  entry  of  some 
fluid  through  the  glottis,  with  its  resulting  ill-conse- 
quences. When  the  disease  tends  to  assume  a  subacute 
character  a  stimulating  application  may  be  applied  to 
the  throat.      The    compound  liniment   of    cantharides   is 


FlO-.  60. — Tracheotomy  Tube.     (Armatage.) 

about  the  best.      These   cases  are  generally  of    an  acute 
and  urgent  character. 


^-XV 


Fig.  61. — Auimal  wearing  Tracheotomy  Tube.     (Artnatage.) 

To  jperform  the  ojperation  of  tracheotomy. — The  head 
being  extended,  the  operator  feels  along  the  front 
of  the  neck  for  the  most  superficial  position  of  the 
trachea.  This  having  been  found  at  about  the  centre 
of  the  neck,  a  longitudinal  incision,  about  two  inches  in 


314 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


length,  is  made  througli  the  skin  and  muscle  on  to  the 
trachea,  and  the  edges  of  the  wound  being  held  apart  by 
hooks,  portions  of  two  consecutive  cartilaginous  rings  are 
removed  with  a  scalpel,  so  that  a  circular  orifice  extends 
into  the  trachea  large  enough  to  admit  the  tracheotomy- 
tube  (see  Fig.  60)  ;  the  latter  is  then  inserted  and 
retained  by  a  band  passing  round  the  neck  and  attached 
on  each  side  of  its  plate  (see  Fig.  61).  It  must  be 
cleaned  daily  until,  when  a  hand  is  kept  over  the  orifice, 
no  impediment  to  breathing  occurs.  It  must  then  be 
permanently  removed  and  the  wound  daily  dressed  with 
carbolic  glycerine  until  it  closes.  The  opening  in  the 
trachea  becomes  filled  with  fibrous  substance  or  ossifi- 
cation of  the  rings  involved  results.  Care  must  be 
taken  lest  the  excised  portions  of  cartilage  fall  into  the 
trachea.  The  operation  may  be  performed  on  the  animal 
whether  standing  or  lying.  Sometimes  it  is  supplanted 
by  Laryngotomy,  which  presents  no  special  advantages 
in  the  ox.  It  consists  in  perforation  of  the  crico-thyroid 
membrane,   but   the  inferior  position  of  the  body  of   the 


Fig.  62. — Larynx  and  Os  hyoides  of  the  ox.     a.  Epiglottis. 
extremity  of  long  cornua.     (Simonds.) 


h.  Inferior 


thyroid  in  the  ox  is  rather  an  impediment.  Besides  this, 
the  larynx  in  bovines  is  remarkable  for  its  simplicity, 
the  absence  of  ventricles  aud  the  high  attachment  of  the 
wide  epiglottis,  which  has  a  rounded  apex.      The  connec- 


THE    RESPIEATOEY    APPAEATUS.  315 

tion  with  the  hyoid  bone  is  less  direct  than  in  the 
horse. 

Pkaryngotomy. — After  giving  an  account  of  an  '^epi- 
demic affection  of  the  upper  air-passages_,^^  which  is  evidently 
the  disease  we  have  mentioned  as  diphtheria^  Youatt  says  : 
"When  there  is  no  great  external  enlargement  and  yet 
much  difficulty  of  breathing  exists  and  suffocation  is 
threatened,  there  is  reason  to  apprehend  that  the  pharynx, 
or  some  factitious  pouch  which  nature  has  suddenly  formed 
for  the  fluid,  or  (yet  very  rarely,  for  they  are  small  in  the 
ox)  the  guttural  pouches  (?),  or  the  commencement  of  the 
communication  between  the  mouth  r.nd  ear,  are  filled  with 
pus/^  In  such  cases  he  recommends  the  performance  of 
an  operation  similar  to  that  known  as  hyovertebrotomy  in 
the  horse.  In  the  present  day  we  would  operate  through 
the  mouth  for  this  condition. 

TuMOUES  OF  THE  Larynx  duc  to  scrous  accumulations 
beneath  the  glottal  mucous  membrane,  cancerous  growths, 
&c.,  are  not  frequent  in  the  ox.  They  prove  serious 
impediments  to  respiration. 

Fractures  of  the  Laryngeal  Gartilage  may  take  place 
from  injury ;  union  ensues,  the  earthy  deposit  uniting  the 
fractured  edges  sometimes  forms  a  tumour  projecting 
beneath  the  laryngeal  mucous  membrane.  Tumours  of 
neighbouring  parts  or  impactions  in  the  oesophagus  may 
impede  respiration  by  pressure  on  the  air-passages. 

The  trachea  has  more  numerous  rings  and  differs  from 
that  of  the  horse,  in  that  the  ends  of  the  cartilages  meet  to 
form  an  acute  angle  posteriorly.  There  is  a  small  special 
bronchus  given  off  from  the  right  side  of  the  tube  some 
distance  before  its  termination.  Though  the  dorsal 
vertebrae  and  ribs  of  the  ox  are  much  less  numerous 
than  those  of  the  horse  they  are  larger,  and  the  posterior 
ribs  are  longer,  and  therefore  the  differences  between  the 
size  of  the  thorax  in  the  two  animals  is  not  so  great  as 
might  be  expected.  The  most  essential  reduction  depends 
on  the  way  the  diaphragm  bulges  in  the  ox,  so  that 
it  extends  to  opposite  the  sixth  and  seventh  ribs.  The 
flat  sternum  of    the  ruminant  allows  him  to  comfortably 


316 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


repose  on  the  inferior  surface  of  the  trunk  while  chewing 
the  cud ;  for,  thanks  to  the  synovial  union  between  the 
sternal  and  vertebral  ribs,  supero-inferior  compression 
leads  to  lateral  expansion  of  the  chest.  Synovial  union 
of  the  first  bone  of  the  sternum  with  the  second  facili- 
tates this.  To  this  point  of  conformation  also  is  attri- 
buted the  fact  that  the  ox  in  the  emergencies  of  pul- 
monary disease  often  remains  in  the  recumbent  posi- 
tion,   a  marked    contrast   to    the   persistent   standing    of 


Fig.  63. — Healthy  lungs  of  the  ox,  seen  from  above.  Showing  the  extra 
lobe  of  the  right  lung  with  its  bronchus  (J),  a.  Trachea,  c.  Kight 
bronchus,     d.  Right  bronchial  tubes.     (Simonds.) 

the   horse     under    similar     circumstances.        A    study   of 
the  arrangement  of   the  respiratory  muscles   in  ruminants 


THE    EESPIEATOEY   APPAEATUS.  317 

serves  to  give  mucli  information  as  to  their  respiratory 
uses. 

Beonchitis — Inflammation  of  the  Lining  Membrane  of 
the  Trachea  and  Bronchial  Tubes — is  of  comparatively  fre- 
quent occurrence  in  the  ox,  depending  either  on  the  ordi- 
nary cause  of  respiratory  disorders,  exposure,  or  on 
extension  of  inflammation  from  the  larynx  and  Schnei- 
derian  membrane.  Also  it  may  be  due  to  mechani- 
cal causes,  the  entry  of  solid  or  liquid  particles  into 
the  air-passages  during  temporary  laxity  of  the  glottis, 
and  the  development  and  residence  of  parasites  in  the 
lungs. 

Symptoms. — Besides  the  ordinary  signs  of  inflamma- 
tion the  pulse  is  remarkably  hard,  and  the  respirations  are 
increased  out  of  all  ordinary  relation  to  the  beats  of  the  pulse, 
the  inspirations  being  difiicult,  and  each  efi^ort  short  and 
imperfect.  The  animal  does  not  look  at  the  side,  nor  flinch 
at  pressure  on  it.  The  cough  is  paroxysmal,  frequent,  and 
very  distressing.  The  visible  mucous  membranes  are  purple 
through  defective  oxidation,  and  there  is  a  considerable 
amount  of  debility  present,  due  to  the  same  cause.  Ausculta- 
tion in  the  early  stages  gives  various  results  according  as 
the  larger  or  smaller  air-tubes  are  involved  ;  later,  both  are 
affected,  as  well  as  the  lung -tissue  in  general.  Rhonchus 
or  sibilus,  according  to  the  region  auscultated,  in  the 
early  stages,  and  the  mucous  rale  later  in  the  attack, 
may  be  present;  sometimes,  also,  we  find  intermittent 
loss  of  sound  in  some  parts  of  the  lung,  due  to  mu- 
cous accumulations  plugging  the  bronchial  tubes.  In 
some  cases  this  latter  condition  may  occur  permanently, 
and  loss  of  small  portions  of  the  lung  result.  This 
is  much  less  important  than  the  similar  state  in  the 
horse.  The  functionless  parts  atrophy  and  often  burst, 
and  the  neighbouring  air-vesicles  enlarge  somewhat. 
Percussion  gives  healthy  results  from  every  part  of  the 
chest.  The  dry  stage  of  the  bronchi  is  succeeded  by  pro- 
fuse discharge  from  the  nostrils,  which  passes  through 
the  usual  phases,  from  watery  to  muco-purulent.  This 
relieves   the   inflammation,   and  recovery   may  now  com- 


318  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

■mence.  Sometimes  tlie  disease  afterwards  assumes  a 
chronic  cliaracter.  Death  may  result  from  suffocation  as 
when  the  effused  fluid  blocks  up  the  air-passages  and  fills 
the  pulmonary  cells,  or  from  imperfect  blood  oxidation,  or 
from  extension  of  the  disease  to  the  lungs,  pleura,  or 
larynx. 

Post-mortem  examination  shows  the  air-passages  blocked 
up  with  frothy  fluid,  and  their  lining  mucous  membrane 
discolored.  The  lungs  have  a  sodden  appearance,  and 
are  also  congested. 

Treatment  must  be  directed  to  support  of  the  strength 
of  the  patient,  the  promotion  of  resolution,  and  the  avoid- 
ance of  lapse  into  the  chronic  stage.  The  animal  must 
be  most  carefully  nursed,  allowed  a  free  supply  of  pure 
air,  a  liberal  supply  of  tempting  food,  and  unlimited 
nitrated  water.  The  air-passages  must  be  steamed  and 
stimulating  applications  applied  to  the  sides  and  along 
the  course  of  the  trachea  ;  these  must  not  prove  excessively 
irritating  nor  vesicant.  When  the  bowels  are  torpid 
enemas  may  be  administered,  but  not  cathartics,  for 
though,  in  the  ox,  the  alimentary  mucous  membrane  does 
not  so  readily  become  involved,  together  with  that  of  the 
respiratory  passages,  as  in  the  horse,  want  of  judgment  in 
this  respect  may  cause  diarrhoea,  and  fatally  tax  the 
strength  of  the  already  debilitated  patient.  Aconite  or 
belladonna  may  be  used  to  control  febrile  excitement. 
When  the  patient  commences  to  rally,  diffusible  stimu- 
lants with  vegetable  tonics  will  prove  most  beneficial. 

Chronic  Bronchitis  is  frequent  in  the  ox ;  it  sometimes 
is  a  sequela  of  the  acute  form,  but  more  frequently  by  far 
results  from  scrofulous  disorder.  The  lungs,  in  these 
cases,  non-specific  as  well  as  specific,  undergo  various 
changes.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  are  asthma,  em- 
physema, consolidation.  The  symptoms  common  to  the 
two  are  a  persistent  hacking  cough,  general  unthriftiness, 
and  tendency  to  slight  asthenic  febrile  attacks.  Emacia- 
tion becomes  very  marked,  and  the  respirations  are  want- 
ing in  depth.  The  animal  is  unequal  to  the  slightest 
exertion. 


THE    EESPIRATOEY    APPAEATUS.  319 

Asthma  consists  in  inflammation  of  the  muscular  coat 
of  the  bronchial  tubes,  which  atrophies,  whereby  either 
dilatation  of  the  tubes  occurs,  or,  since  due  supply  of 
air  to  each  air-cell  is  not  regulated,  these  become  dilated, 
and  eventually  ruptured,  so  that  air  escapes  into  the 
interlobular  areolar  tissue.  The  latter  condition  is  known 
as  interlobular  emphysema  ;  the  former  is  vesicular  emphy- 
sema. Dilatation  of  an  air-cell  leads  to  impervious  con- 
dition of  the  beautiful  capillary  network  on  its  walls, 
and  so  atrophy  of  the  affected  part  of  the  lung  is  pro- 
duced. The  conditions  observed  in  addition  to  these  in 
scrofulous  bronchitis  have  been  already  denoted.  We 
can  do  nothing  to  cure  these  states,  and  but  little  to  pal- 
liate them.  Stimulant  tonics,  easily  digestible  food,  and 
quiescence,  will  keep  the  animal  alive  for  some  time, 
but  the  owner  will  generally  prefer  destruction  of  the 
patient. 

Parasitical  Bronchitis,  "hush/'  "  hoose,"  or  "hoast-/' 
phthisis  pulmonalis  verminalis. — This  disease  is  of  frequent 
occurrence  among  calves  under  a  year  old ;  it  certainly  is 
seen  in  older  animals  when  they  are  in  a  debilitated  con- 
dition, but  seldom  proves  fatal  in  such  cases,  though  it 
sometimes  causes  considerable  mortality  among  calves,  for 
in  them  there  is  not  sufficient  constitutional  stamina  to 
enable  them  to  resist  the  debilitating  effects  of  the  para- 
sites. In  the  older  animal  the  parasites  may  be  found  in 
numbers  in  the  lungs,  even  when  no  special  indications  of 
their  presence  have  been  given ;  but  it  must  be  clearly 
understood  that  their  ill  effects  are  directly  proportional 
to  the  strength  of  constitution  of  the  patient  and  the 
number  of  the  parasites.  These  worms  are  known  as 
8trongylus  micrurus,  the  same  parasite  as  is  found  so  fre- 
quently in  the  lungs  of  the  ass.  They  are  armed  nema- 
todes, and  are  also  found  sometimes  in  the  alimentary 
canal,  and  Williams  notes  their  presence  in  the  heart  and 
blood-vessels  in  some  cases.  Hence  it  is  inferred  that 
they  arrive  at  the  lungs  by  entry  of  the  alimentary  canal 
with  the  food,  boring  a  passage  into  the  blood-vessels, 
passing   with   the   current  of  blood    through   the  blood- 


320  BOVINE  PATHOLOGY. 

vessels,  and  from  the  latter  into  the  bronchial  tubes. 
The  arguments  which  have  been  brought  to  support 
this,  the  most  probable,  view  are  that  this  is  undoubtedly 
the  method  of  distribution  of  many  forms  of  parasites, 
and  the  disease  is  most  frequent  and  the  worm  in  the 
lungs  are  most  numerous  in  young  animals  in  which  the 
tissues  are  most  readily  permeable.  Other  views  are 
those  of  direct  migration  from  the  alimentary  canal  and 
entry  through  the  larynx.  There  is  no  evidence  to  sup- 
port the  former  view ;  the  latter  is  based  upon  the  idea 
that  it  is  possible  for  entry  to  occur  even  in  spite  of 
the  coughing,  which  would  result  from  the  passage 
of  the  worms  through  the  glottis ;  this  is  rather  doubtful. 
Again,  they  might,  when  immature  and  small,  be  carried 
in  with  the  inrush  of  air  during  inspiration.  This  view 
does  not  account  for  the  boring  armature  of  the  animal, 
and  it  has  not  been  found  en  voyage.  As  is  usual  with 
parasitic  affections,  this  disease  is  prevalent  in  wet  seasons, 
on  low  lands  which  are  liable  to  flooding.  It  is  seen  par- 
ticularly in  calves  kept  out  late  in  the  autumn,  and  as  a 
result  of  feeding  over  land  which  has  been  previously 
pastured  by  affected  animals.  It  attacks  a  number  of 
animals  at  once,  and  the  weakest  are  the  first  to  give 
way.  The  special  nature  of  the  irritant  determines  cer- 
tain special  features  in  the  symptoms.  Thus,  acute 
febrile  signs  are  absent,  except  when  the  debility  causes 
that  form  of  fever  known  as  hectic.  This  only  is  observable 
in  the  later  stages.  The  cough  is  remarkably  forcible, 
distressing,  and  of  a  special  hacking  and  paroxysmal 
character.  It  leads  to  the  expulsion  of  stringy  mucus, 
in  which  parasites  may  be  detected  or  their  ova  observed 
under  a  low  power  of  the  microscope.  The  attack  has  a 
subacute  character,  and  proves  very  exhausting.  Thus, 
emaciation  rapidly  increases,  and  diarrhoea  sets  in  as  a 
complication.  The  parasites,  embedded  in  stringy  mucus, 
lie  intertwined  in  groups,  or  stretched  against  the  bron- 
chial mucous  membrane.  When  in  balls  they  block  up 
the  air-passages;  they  also  cause  spasm  of  the  bronchial 
tubes.      Thus,  they  seriously  impede  respiration,  which  is 


THE    RESPIRATOEY    APPAEATUS.  321 

always  remarkably  laboured  in  this  disease.  It  will  be  ob- 
served, however,  on  autopsy ^  that  little  exudation  into  the 
air-passages  has  taken  place,  and  that,  though  the  mucous 
membrane  is  purple,  it  has  not  undergone  such  an  amount 
of  change  as  a- ^Wori  might  have  been  anticipated.  This  is 
attributable  to  the  fact  that  the  irritant  is  a  living  one, 
capable  of  altering  its  position,  and  simply  occupying  its  na- 
tural habitat.  When  the  lungs  of  an  animal  which  has  been 
affected  with  this  disorder,  but  has  recovered,  are  examined, 
it  will  be  found  that  the  worms  have  become  encysted,  and 
have  undergone  calcareous  degeneration,  forming  nodular 
calcareous  deposits  in  the  lungs.  The  average  duration 
of  an  attack  is  two  or  three  weeks. 

Treatment. — Though  we  are  not  assured  of  all  the 
phases  in  the  life  history  of  Strongylus  micrurus,  we  know 
that  when  ova  are  expelled  from  the  lungs  on  to  pastures 
they  undergo  changes  which  are  dependent  upon  warmth 
and  moisture  in  some  way  or  other,  and  result  in  the 
assumption  by  the  immature  parasite  of  the  state  in 
which  it  is  fit  to  gain  entry  into  the  alimentary  canal  with 
food  or  water.  It  remains  for  some  little  time  in  the 
primao  viae,  and  then  becomes  comparatively  inaccessible. 

Preventiorij  therefore,  consists  in  housing  all  severely 
affected  animals,  and  destruction  of  bedding  materials  and 
other  matters  on  which  the  discharges  from  the  patients 
fall;  removal  of  all  the  slightly  diseased  to  high  and  dry 
pastures,  giving  them  a  judicious  supply  of  water  not 
liable  to  be  contaminated,  and  rock  salt;  feeding  them 
liberally  with  strengthening  diet  and  administering  doses 
of  iron  tonics  which  are  anthelmintic.  With  regard  to 
the  housed  animals  they  must  be  treated  with  stimulant 
tonics  and  carefully  nursed.  Williams  has  seen  excellent 
results  from  administration  of  prussic  acid,  which  allays 
bronchial  irritation  and  destroys  the  worms,  but  most 
authorities  seem  to  prefer  more  energetic  treatment  with 
a  view  to  actual  expulsion  of  the  parasites.  Thus,  tur- 
pentine is  much  lauded,  since  it  is  excreted  to  a  certain 
extent  through  the  bronchial  mucous  membrane,  and  is 
supposed  to  render  their  habitat  uncomfortable  to  the  para- 

21 


322  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

sites.  Fumigations  with  chlorine,  carbolic  acid  (coal-tar 
smoke),  and  sulphurous  anhydride,  are  supposed  to  kill  the 
entozoa.  They  certainly  cause  such  an  amount  of  coughing 
as  leads  to  expulsion  of  a  very  considerable  number,  but 
it  is  highly  probable  that  parasites  can  stand  a  more  severe 
dose  of  these  agents  than  the  calves  can.  Therefore, 
though  these  means  should  be  tried  they  must  not  supplant 
the  stimulant  tonic  treatment  above  suggested.  The 
usual  method  of  fumigation  is  to  collect  the  patients  into 
a  loose  box  with  closed  doors  and  windows.  In  this  the 
gas  is  generated  as  long  as  the  operator  is  able  to  bear  it, 
then  the  apparatus  is  removed,  and  the  patients  left 
exposed  to  the  gas  for  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour  accord- 
ing to  their  state  and  the  judgment  of  the  veterinary 
surgeon.  The  liberation  of  chlorine  is  brought  about  by 
the  action  of  sulphuric  acid,  either  on  a  mixture  of 
chloride  of  sodium  and  black  oxide  of  manganese,  or  on 
bleaching  powder.  Sulphurous  anhydride  may  be  procured 
by  burning  sulphur.  Finally,  we  must  insist  on  the  avoid- 
ance of  pastures  notorious  for  generating  hoose  ;  especially 
must  caution  farmers  against  keeping  animals  on  them  in 
the  later  summer  months,  when  the  disease  is  acquired  and 
manifests  itself  towards  the  latter  part  of  autumn.  As 
has  been  so  frequently  urged  by  Dr.  Cobbold,  parasitic 
disorders  of  this  kind  are  of  national  importance,  and, 
therefore,  should  be  taken  cognizance  of  by  the  govern- 
ment with  a  view  to  prevention.  Failing  this,  energetic 
well  directed  action  on  the  part  of  our  agricultural  societies 
could  materially  reduce  the  prevalence  of  these  formidable 
diseases.  Agents  used  in  the  treatment  of  husk  are  some- 
times administered  through  the  nostrils.  Of  course,  this  has 
no  advantage  over  the  method  of  oral  adminstration.  It  is 
possible  that  beneficial  effects  may  result  from  diffusion  of 
such  an  agent  as  turpentine  over  the  nasal  mucous  mem- 
brane, whereby  it  can  impregnate  thoroughly  the  inspired 
air.  It  also  will  give  rise  to  violent  efforts  at  expulsion 
by  sneezing. 

Pulmonary    Congestion   occasionally  occurs  in  the   ox 
under  an  acute  form,  as  a  result  of  over- driving  and  over- 


THE    RESPIEATORY    APPARATUS.  323 

work,  when  it  is  manifested  by  extreme  dyspnoea,  pro- 
fuse cold  perspirations,  coldness  of  the  extremities,  and 
extreme  rapidity  of  the  pulse,  which  is  scarcely  perceptible, 
also  frequent  respirations,  and,  sometimes,  a  mucous 
discharge  from  the  nostrils  intermingled  with  blood.  The 
patient  occupies  the  recumbent  position,  coughs  frequently, 
and  has  a  wild  haggard  look. 

On  post-mortem  examination  the  lungs  are  found  to  be 
enlarged,  of  a  dark  red  colour,  and  increased  specific 
gravity.  The  cavities  of  the  heart  are  gorged  with  black 
blood,  which  also  flows  from  a  section  of  the  lung  sub- 
stance. The  bronchial  tubes  are  filled  with  frothy,  often 
sanguineous  mucus.  This  state  is  liable  to  be  complicated 
by  rupture  of  the  vessels  and  extravasation  of  blood. 
This  is  termed  Pulmonary  Apoplexy,  and  very  seriously 
increases  the  complexity  of  the  case,  for  the  blood  thus 
thrown  out  does  not  readily  become  absorbed,  and  per- 
manently interferes  with  the  function  of  a  part  of  the 
lung  varying  according  to  the  amount  extravasated. 

Subacute  pulmonary  congestion  may  be  seen  in  the  later 
stages  of  blood  diseases  and  anaemic  conditions,  being  one 
of  the  metastatic  congestions  due  to  deficient  nerve  force 
most  liable  to  bring  about  the  death  of  the  patient.  Thus, 
it  is  not  infrequent,  and  is  denoted  by  the  above-men- 
tioned symptoms  manifested  less  urgently  and  appearing 
slowly.  In  all  such  cases  stimulants  are  required  ;  they 
act  in  two  principal  ways,  by  rousing  the  weakened  heart 
to  increased  vigour  of  contraction  and  by  stimulating  the 
nervous  structure  of  the  lungs,  whereby  the  tone  of  the 
vessels  is  resumed  and  the  congestion  overcome.  Measures 
must  be  taken  to  diffuse  the  blood  which  is  abnormally 
heaped  up  in  the  lungs  by  such  means  as  hand-rubbing, 
hay  bandaging  or  stimulating  the  extremities.  Stimu- 
lants, too,  may  be  applied  to  the  sides,  and  the  patient 
clothed  and  nursed  with  care.  Tonic  agents  may  subse- 
quently be  called  for. 

HEMOPTYSIS  is  Bleeding  from  the  Lungs.  The  flow  of 
blood  may  be  somewhat  profuse,  and  vary  in  colour.  It 
is  intermingled  with  mucus,  and  takes  place  from  the  nose 


324  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

and  mouth.  It  results  from  acute  pulmonary  congestion, 
from  laceration  of  the  lung  substance,  or  from  specific 
disorders,  such  as  give  rise  to  ulceration  in  the  lungs  (as 
phthisis)  or  as  cause  subacute  congestion  of  those  organs. 
The  amount  of  blood  which  thus  escapes  is  not  often 
considerable  and  the  flow  will  cease  spontaneously,  but 
sometimes  cold  applications  to  the  sides  and  administration 
of  haemostatics  are  indicated. 

Pneumonitis — Inflammatory  Pneumonia  {Inflammation  of 
the  Lungs) — varies  in  its  nature  at  the  commencement  of 
an  attack  according  to  the  parts  primarily  involved.  Thus 
we  find  three  forms  described : 

I.  Grupous  or  lohar,  due  to  blood  disease,  is  preceded 
by  acute  congestion,  which  is  followed  by  accumulations, 
mainly  in  the  air-cells,  of  lymphy  deposit  intermingled 
with  leucocytes,  proliferating  epithelial  cells,  and  extra va- 
sated  red  corpuscles.  Thus,  the  lung  over  a  considerable 
part  of  its  extent  is  rendered  firm,  and  is  found  granular 
and  somewhat  mottled  on  section.  This  condition  is  red 
hepatization.  It  is  succeeded  by  more  marked  prolifera- 
tion of  the  epithelial  cells  and  increased  escape  of  leu- 
cocytes, and  thus  the  air-cells  becomes  blocked  up  with 
young  cells,  which  subsequently  undergo  fatty  degenera- 
tion ;  this  is  grey  hepatization.  Softening  of  the 
deposits  may  occur  as  a  secondary  process.  The  inter- 
lobular areolar  tissue  is  the  seat  of  lymphy  deposit,  and 
constitutes  yellowish  bands  extending  across  the  cut 
surface  of  the  lung. 

II.  Broncho-pneumonia — Lobular  or  Catarrhal  Inflam- 
mation of  the  Lungs — results  from  extension  of  bronchitis 
into  the  pulmonary  vesicles.  Sometimes  it  depends  upon 
reflux  of  inflammatory  products ;  in  other  cases  it  is 
determined  by  the  perversion  of  function  which  is 
brought  about  by  diminished  supply  of  air.  The  air- 
cells  become  blocked  up  with  the  inflammatory  products 
of  mucous  membrane;  the  inflamed  parts  of  the  lung 
therefore  undergo  one  form  of  grey  consolidation.  It 
leads  to  congestion,  collapse,  and  emphysema.  As  a 
result  of    the   inflammation,  a  serous  effusion  takes  place 


THE    RESPIRATORY    APPARATUS.  325 

into  the  interlobular  tissue,  so  that  in  an  acute  case  the 
lungs  have  a  sodden  appearance. 

III.  Interstitial  ^-nieumonia  or  lung  induration  is  a 
chronic  form  consisting  in  hyperplasia  of  the  interlobular 
areolar  tissue,  due  to  persistence  of  disease  in  this  struc- 
ture after  the  more  acute  attack  in  the  other  lung  elements 
has  subsided.  It  results  in  diminution  in  size  of  the  air- 
vesicles  which  undergo  atrophy,  in  great  firmness  of  lung 
tissue,  and  extensive  emphysema.  Sometimes  it  is  an 
effect  of  broncho-pneumonia,  in  other  cases  of  pleuritis. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  each  of  these  forms  of  pneu- 
monia occurs  in  the  ox.  The  croupous  or  exudative  form 
in  pleuro-pneumonia  zymotica,  in  which  its  exudative  and 
lobar  characters  are  well  marked  and  the  mottled  state  of 
the  section  is  very  evident.  The  catarrhal  form  results  from 
exposure,  alternations  of  temperature,  and  other  like  causes 
to  those  which  originate  bronchitis.  Sometimes  it  depends 
on  the  entry  of  acrid  medicines  and  solid  particles  into  the 
lungs,  as  seen  when  the  protective  influence  of  laryngeal 
sensibility  is  interfered  with,  as  in  parturient  apoplexy,  or 
when  the  pneumogastrics  have  been  injured.  Besides  the 
ordinary  signs  of  fever  we  find  that  there  is  a  suppressed 
cough,  and  the  animal  generally  lies,  but  sometimes  stands 
with  the  muzzle  protruded.  The  extremities  are  of  variable 
temperature  until  the  latter  stages,  when  they  are  persist- 
ently cold.  The  pulse  is  frequent,  and  afterwards  becomes 
rapid,  small,  and  weak.  The  breathing  is  accompanied  by 
a  grunt,  and  is  even,  short,  and  quick.  Ausculation  shows 
at  first  crepitus,  but  the  vesicular  murmur  is  soon  lost ; 
percussion  gives  a  dull  sound.  As  the  disease  progresses 
suppuration  or  gangrene  may  supervene.  The  former 
result  is  rare,  except  when  due  to  specific  disorder,  as  the 
impactment  of  emboli  in  the  blood-vessels.  It  is  indi- 
cated by  rapidly  increasing  debility,  a  peculiar  resonance 
of  the  cough,  and  the  cavernous  rale.  Also  a  purulent 
discharge  passes  up  from  the  lungs  and  sometimes  this 
contains  the  debris  of  the  disorganised  tissue.  When  gan- 
grene takes  place,  there  is  a  rapid  sinking  of  the  patient, 
sudden  fall  of  temperature,  coldness  of  the  extremities,  and 


326  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

a  very  foetid  condition  of  the  breath,  as  also  of  the  nasal 
discharge,  and  the  pulse  runs  down.  In  cases  of  lung  dis- 
ease we  generally  find  that  pressure  of  the  enlarged  organs 
on  the  posterior  vena  cava  causes  congestion  of  the  liver,  as 
denoted  by  yellowness  of  the  visible  mucous  membranes. 
It  is  also  been  noted  that  in  the  dry  stage  of  inflammation 
respiration  is  interfered  with,  but  that  when  exudation 
takes  place,  the  patient  experiences  sudden  relief. 

Treatment. — The  prospects  of  cure  depend  very  con- 
siderably on  the  extent  of  the  disease,  for  if  the  two  lungs 
be  involved  the  blood  will  remain  unoxygenated,  and 
also  be  overloaded  with  impurities.  Bleeding  is  admissible 
under  these  circumstances.  It  is  most  likely  to  produce  a 
prompt  cessation  of  the  inflammatory  process,  and  also  to 
a  certain  extent  removes  impurities  from  the  system. 
It  is  only  to  be  adopted  in  the  earliest  stage  of  the 
disease.  Later,  and  in  conjunction  with  this,  we  must 
administer  aconite  and  other  sedatives,  while  we  endeavour 
to  excite  the  kidneys  and  skin  to  increased  action  by  saline 
febrifuges  and  ether.  The  bowels  should  be  relaxed  by 
enemas.  Externally  stimulants  must  be  freely  applied  to 
the  sides  and  along  the  course  of  the  trachea,  the  limbs 
must  be  hand-rubbed,  bandaged,  and  stimulated.  Pure 
air  must  be  freely  allowed,  but  the  animal  kept  warmly 
clothed.  When  active  febrile  symptoms  have  subsided 
and  secondary  lung  changes  are  taking  place,  our  main 
reliance  must  be  upon  diffusible  stimulants  and  sometimes 
vegetable  tonics.  This  is  especially  necessary  when  there 
is  a  tendency  to  suppuration  and  grangrene.  We  are  not 
prepared  to  reject  the  plan  of  active  stimulation  of  the 
body  surface  in  pneumonitis ;  though  some  practitioners 
carry  it  to  excess,  its  beneficial  effects  in  some  cases  of 
this  nature  will  have  been  evident  to  all  experienced 
cattle  pathologists.  We  are  inclined  to  attribute  the 
benefit  rather  to  reflex  than  to  direct  action. 

The  animal  after  recovery  is  liable  to  permanent  changes 
of  the  lungs,  which  will  not  interfere  with  its  adaptation 
for  various  uses.  These  changes  are  not  so  prejudicial  to 
fitness  for  duties  as  they  would  be  in  the  horse. 


THE    RESPIRATOEY   APPARATUS.  327 

Interstitial  pneumonia  has  been  described  by  some 
autbors  under  the  beading  empbysema.  Tbe  latter  state 
is  one  of  its  results.  Besides  tbe  causes  already  mentioned 
it  may  be  due  to  tbe "  constant  presence  of  effete  matter 
in  tbe  blood.  Tbe  large  amount  of  areolar  tissue  of  tbe 
lungs  of  tbe  ox  must  be  considered  a  predisposing  cause. 
Tbe  symptoms  manifested  by  an  animal  suffering  from 
tbis  form  of  pneumonia  are  obscure.  Tbe  patient  is 
manifestly  unwell,  and  tbere  is  increasing  anaemia.  Tbe 
skin  is  yellow  and  scurfy,  and  tbe  bowels  are  irritable. 
Auscultation  sbows  absence  or  diminution  of  tbe  vesicular 
murmur  in  tbe  diseased  and  increase  in  tbe  bealtby  parts, 
but  percussion  does  not  give  definite  results.  Finally,  tbe 
anaGmia  proves  fatal,  and  after  deatb  tbe  lungs  are  found 
firm,  pale,  and  markedly  empbysematous.  Tbe  rigbt  side 
of  tbe  beart  is  bypertropbied.  Cases  of  tbis  kind  are 
cbronic  and  unsatisfactory.  Stimulant  tonics  and  good 
feeding  witb  careful  nursing  are  about  tbe  only  means  at 
our  disposal.  Tbe  absorbent  action  of  iodide  of  potassium 
may  be  tried. 

Tbe  effects  of  entry  of  non-respirable  gases  into  tbe 
lungs  or  of  tbe  passage  of  fluid  matters  in  considerable 
quantity  down  tbe  tracbea  are,  primarily,  aspbyxia,  but  if 
tbe  animal  be  able  to  rally  from  tbis  tbe  catarrhal  form  of 
pneumonia  supervenes  ('Veterinarian,''  vol.  xiv,  p.  257). 

Sometimes  Echinococcus  cysts  are  found  in  tbe  lungs. 
Tbey  may  be  present  in  considerable  number  without  our 
attention  having  been  drawn  to  any  sign  of  ill  health  in 
tbe  host.  The  cysts  are  formed  by  tbe  areolar  tissue, 
condensed  and  altered  by  the  presence  of  the  parasite 
and  enclosing  it  on  every  side.  They  may  be  deeply 
embedded  in  tbe  substance  of  the  organ  or  projecting  on 
the  surface,  and  sometimes  are  in  tbe  stage  of  calcareous 
degeneration.  Wounds  of  the  Lungs  are  not  so  frequent, 
for  these  organs  are  very  elastic.  An  interesting  case  of  a 
"  Cyst  in  the  lung,^^  due  probably  to  the  passage  of  a 
foreign  body  from  the  stomach,  is  given  by  Mr.  G  errard,  of 
Romford  ('Veterinary  Journal,^  vol.  iv,  p.  163).  A  laceration 
of  this  organ  leads  to  baBmoptysis,  but  repair  somewhat 


328  BOVINE  PATHOLOGY. 

readily  takes  place.  The  most  frequent  cause  of  laceration 
is  fracture  of  a  rib  with  the  extremities  forced  inwards. 
^'  Tic ''  under  this  name  has  been  described  '^  wind 
sucking  ^^  of  the  ox.  It  has  been  observed  in  France, 
and  is  due  to  indigestion. 

The  pleura  of  the  ox  differs  from  that  of  the  horse, 
mainly  in  the  fact  that  the  lower  part  of  the  posterior 
mediastinum  is  as  stout  as  any  other  part  of  the  median 
septum  of  the  chest.  Hence  an  accumulation  of  fluid  may 
take  place  in  one  pleural  sac  only,  a  state  of  affairs  not 
often  seen  in  the  horse. 

Pleueitis,  Pleurisy.  —  Inflammation  of  the  pleura 
results  from  exposure,  especially  when  east  winds  are 
prevalent;  it  then  assumes  an  enzootic,  or  even  epizootic 
character.  It  also  occurs  as  a  complication  of  pneumonia, 
and  a  result  of  fractures  of  the  ribs  and  other  injuries. 
It  has  been  seen  in  a  case  of  passage  of  a  sharp  agent  from 
the  stomach,  which  gained  exit  from  the  body  through  the 
thoracic  walls.  It  is  in  some  cases  of  a  rheumatic  character. 
It  may  be  circumscribed  or  diffused,  unilateral  or  double. 

Symptoms.— Besides  the  general  signs  of  fever,  the 
pulse  is  small,  quick,  frequent,  and  hard.  The  respirations 
are  peculiar,  being  principally  abdominal  ;  the  inspiratory 
efforts  being  cautious,  and  the  expirations  prolonged. 
The  patient  usually  stands  with  an  anxious  expression. 
A  sharp,  suppressed,  painful  cough  is  present.  Pain  is 
manifested  on  pressure  between  the  intercostal  spaces  by 
the  animal  flinching  and  giving  a  grunt.  Auscultation 
detects  the  friction  sound  in  addition  to  the  ordinary 
respiratory  murmurs.  A  sudden  subsidence  of  the  acute- 
ness  of  the  symptoms  denotes  when  effusion  into  the  pleural 
sac  has  taken  place  (Hydrothorax).  Then  the  pulse 
becomes  soft,  but  is  still  frequent  and  small.  The  breath- 
ing is  laboured,  with  prolonged  expiration,  the  thorax  is 
enlarged,  for  the  ribs  are  separated  from  each  other  to  the 
greatest  degree  possible.  Less  pain  is  manifested  on  pres- 
sure of  the  sides,  and  the  animal  feeds  freely.  There  have 
been  noted  a  peculiar  flapping  of  the  notrils,  protrusion  of 
the  muzzle,  and  an  anxious  expression.   Dropsical  swellings 


THE    RESPIRATORY    APPARATUS.  329 

appear,  and  the  patient  becomes  very  weak,  and  death 
from  asthenia  results.  Accumulation  of  fluid  in  the  chest 
rarely  occurs  except  as  a  result  of  previous  inflamma- 
tory action.  The  most  valuable  indications  of  its  presence 
are  afforded  by  auscultation  and  percussion.  The  lattei 
test  gives  a  dull  sound  as  high  as  the  fluid  has  risen  in 
the  chest ;  the  former  an  absence  of  all  sound  below  the 
same  line. 

Results. — Eesolution  frequently  follows  proper  treat- 
ment, and  the  deposits  become  reabsorbed.  If  the 
disease  has  existed  for  some  time  some  of  the  deposits 
will  have  become  organised  uniting  the  pulmonary  with 
the  costal  pleura.  Often  we  find  that  the  pleura  of  a  healthy 
animal  is  opaque  in  patches,  or  has  slight  stringy  lymph 
bands  connected  with  it,  as  a  result  of  a  previous  attack 
of  pleurisy.  Death  may  take  place  in  the  earliest  stage 
from  fever,  or  in  the  later  stage  after  prolonged  disease 
from  collapse  of  the  lungs,  in  consequence  of  pressure 
from  effusion,  or  it  may  be  the  culmination  of  progressive 
debility. 

Autopsy. — At  first  a  congested  condition  of  the  pleura, 
causing  reddening  and  dryness,  either  diffused,  localised, 
or  in  patches  ;  later,  opacity  and  lymph  deposits,  in  various 
stages  of  organisation,  investing  the  pleural  surface, 
uniting  the  parietal  and  visceral  layers  of  the  membrane, 
hanging  as  shreds  in  the  effused  lymph,  or  sepa- 
rated as  flocculi,  which  float  in  the  effused  serum,  which 
varies  in  quantity  (sometimes  amounting  to  several  gal- 
lons), colour  (straw  coloured  or  red),  and  turbidity. 
Occasionally  pus  is  found  in  the  pleural  sac,  when  the 
condition  is  known  as  Empyema  (but  this,  when  it  does 
occur,  is  generally  due  to  a  ruptured  abscess  of  the  lungs, 
for  instance).  The  pleura  may,  in  very  acute  cases,  be 
gangrenous,  its  lymphy  deposit  dark  and  wanting  in  con- 
sistency, and  of  an  offensive  odour.  In  hydrothorax  the 
lung  or  lungs  are  small,  firm,  and  somewhat  congested. 

Treatment, — That  suggested  for  broncho-pneumonia 
may  be  adopted,  with  the  following  modifications : — 
Bleeding  is  not  called  for;  laxative  agents  may  be  freely 


330 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


administered,  for  there  is  no  such  tendency  to  diarrhoea, 
as  is  sometimes  seen  in  pneumonia.  External  stimulation 
must  be  resorted  to  under  the  form  of  mustard  applica- 
tions to  the  sides,  or  prolonged  fomentation  with  hot  water. 
In  the  hydrothoracic  stage  nitre  must  be  freely  given  in  the 
drinking-water.  Digitalis  is  specially  indicated  as  a  seda- 
tive agent,  which  materially  promotes  absorption.  Iodide 
of  potassium  and  other  resolvents  are  useful.  The  de- 
position of  false  membranes,  however,  prevents  absorption, 
and  the  constantly  increasing  accumulation  of  fluid 
threatens  lung  collapse.  Under  these  circumstances 
Paracentesis    tJioracis  or    Thoracentesis — ^^  tapping  of   the 


FiQ.  64. — Thoracentesis  v.  paracentesis  thoracis.     (Armatage.) 


Fig.   65. — Thoracentesis.     Primary  incision,    with   the  skin  drawn  to  one 
side.     (Armatage.) 

chest'^ — must  be  resorted  to.  This  is  performed  as  in 
the  horse;  the  sixth  or  seventh  intercostal  space,  just 
behind  the  point  of  the  elbow,  is  chosen.  A  small  trocar 
and  canula  are  used.  The  skin  is  drawn  forwards  (Fig.  65), 
80  that  the  external  wound  may  not  correspond  with  the 


THE    EESPIRATOEY    APPARATUS.  3cJl 

puncture  into  tlie  chest.  It  is  pierced  by  means  of  a  scalpel. 
The  trocar  is  theninserted  through  the  thoracic  wall  at  about 
the  centre  of  the  lower  third_,  near  the  anterior  margin  of 
the  rib.  Directly  the  wall  is  punctured  the  canula  is  pushed 
farther  in,  and  the  trocar  withdrawn  (Fig.  64).  It  is  not 
considered  advisable  to  thoroughly  empty  the  chest,  and  thus 
suddenly  and  completely  remove  from  the  lung  all  the  pres- 
sure exerted  by  the  fluid.  Again,  a  rush  inwards  of  air  must 
not  be  allowed.  If  a  free  flow  of  fluid  does  not  occur,  or 
suddenly  ceases,  it  may  be  due  to  lymph  plugging  the 
tube ;  this  must  be  removed  with  a  probe.  In  all  cases 
where  empyema  is  diagnosed  this  operation  must  be 
resorted  to.  It  may  require  to  be  repeated  two  or  three 
times,  and  cases  have  been  known  to  recover  under  this 
treatment.      Prognosis,  however,  is  decidedly  unfavorable. 

Pneumothorax  is  accumulation  of  gas  in  the  pleural  sac, 
due  either  to  injury  of  the  lung  or  a  wound  communicating 
with  the  exterior.  If  the  opening  be  closed  the  air  will  be- 
come absorbed. 

Pleuro-pneumonia  sporadica. — We  find  that  frequently 
pneumonia  and  pleurisy  are  concomitant,  the  disease  ori- 
ginating either  in  the  lungs  or  the  pleura.  The  symptoms, 
pathological  changes,  and  methods  of  treatment  which  are 
most  beneficial  are  compounded  of  those  of  pleurisy  and 
pneumonitis,  and  do  not  here  need  recapitulation.  The 
case  seems  most  like  one  of  pleurisy  in  some  instances,  of 
pneumonitis  in  others.  The  most  important  question  for 
consideration,  with  regard  to  this  disorder,  is  in  what 
respects  it  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  epizootic  pleuro- 
pneumonia. This  is  a  matter  of  much  importance, 
especially  to  veterinary  inspectors.  The  existence  of 
this  sporadic  disease  has  been  denied,  but  most 
unwarrantably. 

Causes. — It  cannot  be  attributed  to  contagion,  but 
results  from  exposure  to  cold,  and  other  influences  liable 
to  generate  inflammation  of  the  respiratory  organs  ;  seldom 
runs  through  a  herd ;  several  animals,  similarly  exposed, 
may  become  simultaneously  affected,  but  removal  of  the 
cause  leads  to  cessation  of  fresh  cases  ;  is  most  prevalent  in 


332  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

inclement  seasons,  and  is  not  usually  found  associated  with 
the  introduction  of  a  fresh  lot  of  beasts  on  to  a  farm,  nor 
with  exposure  in  fairs  and  markets. 

Symjotoms. — Acute  febrile  signs  are  present,  the  attack 
is  sudden,  runs  its  course  rapidly,  and  frequently  termi- 
nates in  resolution.  We  seldom  find  one  lung  more 
affected  than  the  other,  and  the  phases  of  the  disease  in 
the  different  parts  of  the  lung  are  uniform. 

Post-mortem  ajppearances  show  the  lung  disease  as 
rather  of  the  catarrhal  than  the  croupous  form.  Both 
lungs  are  generally  uniformly  involved.  The  section 
presents  a  marked  appearance,  but  not  the  variety  of 
colour  seen  in  the  other  form — the  yellow  bands  are  not 
so  evident.  With  the  exception  of  the  intercostals  the 
muscular  system  presents  no  special  change. 

The  diaphragm  of  the  ox  is  very  upright.  The 
muscular  fibres  gain  attachment  in  a  bipenniform  manner 
to  a  tendon  running  from  above  downwards  centrally, 
to  just  above  foramen  sinistrum.  This  arrangement  is 
very  special. 

EuPTURE  OF  THE  DiAPHRAGM  is  somotimos  scou  in  the  ox ; 
it  is  generally  complicated  with  hernia.  In  some  cases 
it  seems  to  be  rather  congenital  deficiency  than  true 
rupture. 


THE   UEINE   AND   UEINAEY    APPAEATUS. 


333 


CHAPTEK  YI.— DISEASES 

UKINARY  APPARATUS. 


AND 


We  find  that  in  the  ox  the  kidneys  are  lobulated, 
since  they  retain  the  division  into  parts  observable  in  the 
foetus ;   they  are  large,  and  present  well-marked  papillaD 

A.  B.  C. 


Fig.  66. — Kidney  of  the  ox.     A.  Ri-..     ^ui^cro-external  surface.     B.  Left; 
infero-internal  surface.     C.  Left :  showing  calyces.     (After  Chauveau.) 

and  calycine  divisions  of  the  pelvis.  The  bladder  is 
thoroughly  invested  by  peritoneum,  and  is  of  considerable 
size.  The  curve  in  the  penis  of  the  male  interferes  with 
the  passage  of  the  catheter.  Also  the  urethral  passage  is 
small  and  situated  deeply  in  the  substance  of   the  penis. 


334  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

In  the  female  a  small  mucous  pouch,  which  opens  back- 
wards, may  be  found  on  the  floor  of  the  vulva,  just  behind 
the  termination  of  the  urethra.  In  passing  the  catheter 
some  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  this  cul-de-sac.  The 
urine  of  the  ox  is  alkaline,  of  a  light  yellow  colour,  having 
a  specific  gravity  of  1032  to  1040.  Boussingault  estimates 
the  average  amount  passed  at  7*2  kgrs.  in  twenty-four 
hours,  and  his  analyses  show  that  as  compared  with  the 
urine  of  the  horse  that  of  the  ox  contains  more  water,  hip- 
purate  of  potash  (16-5 — 4*7),  sulphate  of  potash  and  chlo- 
ride of  sodium,  and  much  less  urea  (18*5- — 31),  and  scarcely 
any  carbonate  of  lime  (0"6 — 10*8).  From  the  prepuce  of  the 
male  hang  downwards  long  hairs  in  a  tuft  of  a  considerable 
size.  The  urine  flows  in  small  straight  stream  while  the 
animal  stands  still.  The  cow  postures  herself  for  expulsion 
of  urine,  and  evacuates  forcibly  and  in  large  stream. 

Disorders  of  the  urinary  system  naturally  divide  into 
those  of  the  secretory  organ  and  the  product  of  the 
secretory  process,  on  the  one  hand ;  of  the  urinary  passages 
and  the  accumulation  and  evacuation,  on  the  other. 

Section  1. — -Abnormalities  of  the  Urine. 

The  production  of  fluid  may  be  excessive  or  the  reverse, 
may  be  perverted,  or  matters  may  be  abnormally  added. 

Diabetes  simplex,  v.  Insipidus. — Profuse  urination  is 
dependent  on  excess  of  water  in  the  blood  (hydrsemia), 
or  on  the  presence  in  that  fluid  of  some  diuretic  principle. 
Thus,  it  is  sometimes  observed  as  a  crisis  of  fevers,  and 
is  nature's  means  of  removal  of  impurities  from  the 
blood.  The  total  daily  product  of  urine  is  in  excess  of  the 
normal,  but  its  specific  gravity  is  decreased,  and  there 
is  a  deficiency  of  colour.  The  patient  is  very  thirsty, 
and  some  fever  may  be  present.  The  bowels  are  torpid, 
the  appetite  depraved,  and  the  visible  mucous  membranes 
very  pale.  Anajmia  is  present,  and  may  increase  to  even 
a  fatal  degree.  This  can  hardly  be  considered  a  disease, 
but  rather  a  symptom  of  unsatisfactory  composition  of  the 
blood.      It    must    not    be   too   hastily   checked,  but    the 


THE    UKINE    AND    URINARY    APPARATUS.  335 

animal  allowed  a  free  supply  of  food  and  drinking  water, 
and  nursed,  care  being  taken  to  change  the  diet.  Later, 
doses  of  iodide  of  potassium  will  be  found  beneficial. 
Special  care  should  be  taken  that  the  skin  be  kept  healthy, 
and  the  bowels  may  be  aroused  into  activity  by  a  laxative 
dose.  Tonics  may  be  required  in  the  later  stage.  The 
adminstration  of  laxatives  is  especially  called  for,  since 
food  containing  excess  of  moisture,  or  impure,  or  rank, 
is  liable  to  cause  diabetes.  Autopsy  shows  signs  of  anasmia. 
This  condition  is  rare. 

NoN-SECEETiON  OP  Urine  scriously  affects  the  blood, 
giving  rise  to  the  condition  know  as  urcemia.  It  is  seen 
experimentally  after  excision  of  both  kidneys,  also  to  a 
less  degree  in  inflammation  of  these  organs,  especially 
when  both  are  involved.  Then  the  impurities  in  the 
blood  prove  actually  poisonous,  though  the  liver  and  skin 
endeavour,  to  a  certain  extent,  to  perform  the  duties  of 
the  kidneys  in  addition  to  their  own  labours.  This  also 
is  but  a  symptom  of  disease,  and  must  be  treated  with  the 
state  upon  which  it  depends.  Sometimes  there  is  defi- 
cient secretion  of  urine,  as  in  fever,  and  that  which  is 
passed  is  of  high  specific  gravity  in  consequence  of  the 
large  amount  of  extractives  it  contains.  A  similar  state, 
but  of  a  chronic  character,  is  due  to  deficient  supply  of 
water  for  drinking  purposes  when  the  patient  has  been  fed 
on  dry  food.  This  certainly  predisposes  to  calculous  disor- 
ders of  the  urinary  passages.  It  is  seen  in  draught  beasts 
in  dry  countries,  or  when  animals  are  turned  out  on  upland 
pastures  in  hot,  dry  weather.  Parhes  estimates  the  amount 
of  water  necessary  for  a  working  ox  on  dry  food  at  6 — 8 
gallons  per  diem. 

HEMATURIA. — Occurrence  of  hlood  in  the  urine  depends 
upon  injuries,  acute  congestion,  or  ulceration  of  the 
kidneys  or  urinary  passages.  Sometimes  also  upon  exces- 
sive, indiscriminate,  administration  of  diuretics  or  ingestion 
of  acrid  plants.  Straining,  leaping  on  each  other,  and 
falling  into  ditches  are  the  most  frequent  cause  of  injury. 
This  is  an  accompaniment  of  some  forms  of  blood  disease, 
and  is  often  symptomatic  of  the  presence  of  calculi. 


336  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

Symptoms. — The  urine  contains  blood  in  a  coagulated 
condition.  There  is  pain  on  pressure  of  the  loins,  the 
animal  stands  "  in  a  heap  '^  with  the  back  arched,  moves 
with  difficulty,  and  with  a  stiff  staggering  gait.  There  is 
frequent  passage  of  a  small  amount  of  urine.  The 
patient  stands,  and  suffers  from  a  variable  amount  of 
sympathetic  fever.  Sometimes  this  is  associated  with 
injuries  caused  at  the  same  time.  In  one  case  clots 
became  fixed  in  the  urethra  and  interfered  with  the  flow 
of  urine,  causing  the  symptoms  of  retention  of  urine. 
Rectal  exploration  should  be  made  in  all  cases  of  this 
kind  to  determine  whether  any  injury  of  the  vertebra3  is 
present,  in  which  case  there  is  likely  also  to  be  paralysis. 
In  the  female,  also,  examination  should  be  made  per 
vulvam. 

Treatment. — Grenerally  consists  in  the  endeavour  to  cure 
the  injury  upon  which  this  depends,  but  where  the  flow  is 
very  rapid  cold  enemas  and  cold-water  applications  to  the 
loins,  and  such  haemostatic  agents  as  sulphuric  acid  and 
the  acetate  of  lead  may  be  given.  Demulcent  drinks  are 
a  useful  adjunct  to  more  active  measures.  The  diet 
throughout  the  attack,  and  for  some  time  after,  should  be 
laxative ;   small  doses  of  oil  will  be  beneficial. 

Albuminuria  is  treated  of  at  some  length  by  Armatage. 
He  tell  us  it  is  due  to  disordered  digestion  and  excretion 
of  imperfectly  elaborated  albumen  by  the  kidneys.  That 
it  results  from  irregular  feeding  and  bad  management, 
and  from  diseases  of  the  nervous  and  digestive  systems. 

Symptoms. — A  great  desire  to  stretch  at  full  length, 
constipation,  stiffness,  and  straddling  gait.  Respiration 
acclerated,  urine  thick,  mucilaginous,  and  dark  coloured. 
We  are  also  told  that  this  fluid  may  not  exhibit  the 
ordinary  reactions  of  albumen,  "  but  white  precipitates 
are  obtained  with  nearly  all  the  following  : — Tincture  of 
galls,  solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury,  alcohol  ;  solution 
of  subnitrate  of  mercury,  flesh  colour;  solution  of  ferro- 
cyanide  of  potassium,  acidulated  with  acetic  acid,  gives  a 
white  precipitate  after  being  heated. ^^  Paralysis  and  coma 
result.      Armatage    considers  this    the   same   as   Bright^s 


THE    URINARY    APPARATOS.  337 

disease  in  man,  but  it  has  not  the  chronic  character  of 
that  disorder,  the  kidneys  are  not  found  in  a  state  of 
granular  degeneration  after  death,  and  the  urine  has  not 
been  shown  to  contain  disorganised  renal  substance  and 
casts  of  the  tubuli  uriniferi.  The  analogy  between  the 
two  diseases  can  hardly  be  considered  to  be  established, 
but  we  must  consider  albuminuria  of  the  ox  a  symptom  of 
defective  assimilation.  It  must,  therefore,  be  treated  by 
a  cathartic  dose,  liberal  administration  of  readily  digestible 
food,  and  vegetable  tonics.  Measures  must  not  be  taken 
to  check  the  activity  of  the  kidneys. 

Section  2. — Diseases  op  the  Kidney. 

Nephritis — Inflammation  of  the  Kidney — is  not  a  fre- 
quent disease  of  cattle.  It  is  seen  in  working  oxen,  for 
these  are  most  liable  to  exposure  when  heated  and  to 
strains.  In  the  horse  this  disease  may  generally  be 
traced  to  excessive  administration  of  diuretic  agents  to 
improve  condition,  but  sometimes  to  over-weighting  and 
want  of  harmony  between  the  movements  of  an  awkward 
rider  and  those  of  the  horse.  These  influences  do  not 
operate  on  the  ox  to  such  an  extent,  though  the  former 
may  be  to  him  an  occasional  cause  of  this  disease.  In- 
juries of  various  kinds  and  extension  of  inflammation  from 
neighbouring  parts  sometimes  give  rise  to  nephritis. 

Symptoms. — Besides  the  general  febrile  signs  we  find 
that  if  both  kidneys  be  affected  no  urine  is  passed;  if 
only  one,  a  diminished  supply  of  urine  of  a  thick  viscid 
character,  containing  much  albumen,  and  perhaps  blood 
and  pus.  This  is  frequently  passed  in  small  quantities,  and 
afterwards  the  patient  continues  to  make  ineffectual  at- 
tempts to  urinate ;  passing  the  catheter  or  manual  explora- 
tion per  rectum  or  vaginam  shows  that  the  bladder  is 
empty.  There  are  generally  obvious  signs  of  colicky  pain. 
The  patient  stands,  and  moves  stiffly,  and  with  a  straddling 
painful  gait.  The  back  is  arched,  and  acute  pain  is  mani- 
fested on  pressure  of  the  loins.  In  the  latter  stages 
urasmic  complications   set  in,   denoted  by   double    pulse, 

22 


338  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

considerably  increased  fever,  urinous  sweats,  foetid  evacu- 
ations of  faeces,  and  paralysis.  In  some  cases  the 
diagnosis  of  this  disorder  will  be  found  very  difficult. 

On  post-mortem  examination,  one  or  both  kidneys  are 
found  disorganised,  enlarged,  and  reddened.  Lymphy 
deposits  occur  in  parts  of  the  organ,  and  sometimes  sup- 
purative changes  which  lead  to  formation  of  abscesses. 
Gangrene  of  these  organs  is  seldom  seen.  In  chronic 
cases,  cystic  disease  due  to  accumulation  of  fluid  in  the 
Malpighian  corpuscles,  with  blocking  of  their  tubes  and 
atrophy,  are  present.  Hypertrophy  of  these  corpuscles 
may  often  be  observed  in  the  undiseased  kidney. 

Treatment. — Bleeding  is  indicated  as  exerting  a  seda- 
tive influence  and  removing  a  considerable  amount  of 
effete  matter  from  the  blood.  The  bowels  and  skin  should 
be  aroused  to  activity  to  relieve  the  kidneys,  Aconite 
may  be  required  as  a  febrifuge.  Warm  water  to  the 
loins  or  the  application  of  a  fresh  sheep  skin  to  the 
same  part  is  decidedly  beneficial,  and  warm  enemas  are 
useful  as  fomentations.  Digitalis  applied  as  a  decoc- 
tion to  the  skin  is  recommended  by  Williams  as  a  means 
of  exciting  the  secretion  of  urine  when  ursemic  intoxica- 
tion sets  in.  When  pain  is  excessive,  doses  of  opium 
must  be  given.  Thoughout  the  attack  cantharides,  tur- 
pentine, and  other  stimulants  which  act  on  the  kidneys, 
must  not  be  applied  to  the  surface. 

Abscess  op  the  Kidney  is  denoted  by  passage  of  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  pus  with  the  urine.  It  most  often 
depends  on  calculus.  Little  can  be  done  in  such  cases 
except  to  support  the  strength  of  the  patient.  This 
condition  may  be  secondary,  due  to  emboli  or  to  specific 
blood  diseases. 

Renal  Calculus  of  the  ox  is  not  infrequent.  Generally 
there  are  several  of  these  concretions  situated  in  the 
calyces  of  the  pelvis.  They  are  irregular  in  form,  are 
dense  and  laminated.  "  And  as  they  increase  in  size  cause 
absorption  of  the  medullary  structure  of  the  kidney,  and 
to  a  certain  extent  interfere  with  the  function  of  the  organ. ^' 
(Morton).      They  vary  considerably   in   size  and  in  theii' 


THE  URINARY  APPARATUS.  339 

effects  on  tlie  animal.  Sometimes  they  cause  no  notice- 
able symptoms ;  in  other  cases  there  are  signs  of  sup- 
purative nephritis^  but  of  a  chronic  character.  The 
uncertainty  of  diagnosis  and  the  deeply- seated  position  of 
the  concretion  are  impediments  to  remedial  measures. 
Stimulants  freely  administered,  and. opiates  when  there  ia 
much  pain,  may  be  tried.  The  value  of  the  so-called 
lithontriptics,  hydrochloric  acid,  for  example,  in  such  cases 
is  probably  nil.  These  calculi  must  be  considered  to 
result  from  an  excess  of  salines  or  deficiency  of  water  in 
the  urine ;  probably  a  portion  of  inspissated  mucus  forms 
the  nucleus.  Cases  of  free  incision  through  the  side  and 
removal  of  calculus  from  the  kidney  through  the  wound 
have,  I  believe,  been  known,  but  there  are  many  objec- 
tions to  this  bold  operation.  It  is  better,  if  possible, 
to  fatten  the  patient  for  the  butcher. 

Parasites  have  been  observed  in  the  kidney  of  the  ox, 
but  are  less  frequent  than  in  the  horse. 

Encephaloid  Cancer  of  the  kidney.  Professor  Walley 
records  a  case  in  the  'Veterinary  Journal,'  vol.  ii,  1878, 
p.  9.  It  was  associated  with  similar  tumours  in  the  omen- 
tum, and  nothing  was  known  of  the  history  of  the  case. 

Section  3. — Abnormalities  of  the  Urinary  Passages. 

Sometimes  a  small  calculus  passes  from  the  kidney  into 
the  ureter  and  there  becomes  impacted,  either  on  account 
of  its  size  or  of  spasm  of  the  tube.  Then  severe  colicky 
pains  take  place,  with  straining,  stamping  the  feet,  lashing 
the  tail,  and  perhaps  looking  round  at  the  side,  until  re- 
laxation supervenes  and  the  concretion  passes  on  into  the 
bladder.  Occasionally  diagnosis  in  such  cases  is  possible 
from  exploration  per  anum,  when  the  stone  may  be  re- 
moved by  incision  through  the  wall  of  the  bowel.  This 
operation  is  seldom  called  for.  Sometimes  the  calculus 
becomes  fixed  at  the  opening  into  the  bladder,  when 
dilatation  of  the  ureter  and  of  the  pelvis  of  the  kidney 
will  result  from  accumulation  of  urine  behind  the  obstruc- 
tion.    In  these  cases  full  doses  of   opium  are  indicated 


340  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

when  pain  is  excessive ;  it  acts  as  an  anodyne  and  relaxes 
spasm  of  muscular  fibres. 

The  bladder  is  subject  to  several  serious  disorders. 
Of  these  the  most  important  are  associated  with  either 
retention,  incontinence,  strangury,  and  dysury — symptoms 
of  disorder  mostly  dependent  on  several  causes. 

Retention  op  Urine  must  be  distinguished  from  IscJiury, 
In  the  latter  case  no  urine  is  secreted,  as  may  be  seen  in 
nephritis.  Retention  is  non-passage,  attributable  either  to 
obstruction  or  to  want  of  expelling  power.  We  are  fre- 
quently told  by  cowmen  that  the  patient  has  not  passed 
any  water  for  some  time ;  this  must  be  interpreted  as  ^'  has 
not  been  seen  to  urinate,'^  it  generally  is  a  false  alarm. 
The  retention  may  be  due  to  loss  of  power  of  the  bladder, 
depending  on  nervous  lesions,  as  in  apoplectic  cases  j  to 
spasm  of  the  neck  of  the  organ,  with  or  without  inflamma- 
tion ;  blocking  up  of  the  urethral  passage  by  calculi  or 
lymph  j  the  pressure  of  a  hardened  mass  of  faeces  in  the  rec- 
tum may  have  this  effect.  The  secretion  of  urine  continues, 
the  longer,  therefore,  this  state  remains  the  more  urgent 
the  symptoms  ;  but  in  cases  due  to  nervous  lesions  accumu- 
lation may  take  place  to  a  suflBcient  extent  to  rupture  the 
bladder  without  any  appreciable  signs  of  discomfort. 
Under  other  circumstances  the  animal  is  very  uneasy, 
lashes  the  tail  about,  shifts  the  hind  limbs,  and  sometimes 
rises  and  lies  down  again  frequently.  He  repeatedly  en- 
deavours to  micturate,  and  perhaps  looks  round  at  the 
flank.  There  is  always  an  anxious  expression  of  counte- 
nance. Exploration  jper  rectum  et  vaginam  discloses 
the  distended  state  of  the  bladder,  and  also  ascertains 
whether  any  cause  exists  in  either  of  these  parts  to  account 
for  the  obstruction.  Sometimes  simple  pressure  on  the 
organ  will  rouse  it  to  action,  a  point  of  great  importance 
in  the  male,  in  whom  this  accident  most  frequently  occurs, 
for  the  sigmoid  flexure  of  the  penis  of  this  animal  com- 
plicates the  passing  of  the  catheter,  which  is  the  next 
measure  which  suggests  itself.  The  same  form  of  catheter 
is  used  for  both  male  and  female  in  cattle  practice.  It  is 
a  metal  tube,  about  24  inches  long,  and  with  a  calibre  of 


THE    URINARY    APPARATUS. 


341 


about  i  inch,  somewhat  curved,  blind  at  one  rounded 
extremity,  but  perforated  at  its  sides  just  within  this,  open 
at  the  other  (see  fig.  77,  p.  394).  The  operator,  standing  on 
the  right  ("near")  side  of  the  cow,passes  the  left  hand,  with 
the  index  finger  over  the  rounded  end  of  the  tube,  into  the 
vulva,  and  thus  introduces  this  end  into  the  urethral  opening 
on  the  floor  of  the  canal,  avoiding  the  cul-de-sac  placed 
just  behind  the  orifice.  When  the  instrument  enters  the 
bladder  a  rush  of  urine  takes  place.  This  easy  operation 
must  be  performed  whenever  a  cow  remains  recumbent  for 
an  unusual  length  of  time.  In  the  male  the  course  of  the 
urethra  must  be  traced  to  its  extreme  posterior  part,  and 
an  incision  made  into  it  behind  the  ischial  arch.    Through 


Fig.  67. — Passing  the  Catheter  in  the  ox.    (Armatage.) 


this  the  catheter  may  be  passed.  The  animal  will  not 
require  to  be  cast ;  indeed,  this  would  not  be  satisfactory 
in  the  highly  distended  state  of  the  bladder.  The  wound 
may  be  closed  with  a  suture  if  it  does  not  seem  that 
evacuation  will  require  to  be  repeated.  The  method  of 
prepuhic  puncture  has  been  suggested,  and  might  well  be 
performed  in  the  ox  if  the  symptoms  be  very  urgent. 

Incontinence  op  Urine  [diuresis). — Constant  dribbling 
of  urine  may  result  either  from  relaxation  of  the  urethral 
canal  at  its  commencement  (the  contact  of  whose  walls  is 
now  deemed   the   true  physiological  means  of  preventing 


342  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

ihe  escape  of  the  accumulating  urine),  or  from  irritability 
of  the  bladder,  as  in  certain  disorders  of  its  lining  mem- 
brane or  a  cystic  calculus ;  also  where  the  urine  is  abnor- 
mally acrid  and  laden  with  irritating  material ;  thus,  we 
have  noticed  its  presence  in  haematuria.  Sometimes  it 
may  be  deemed  advisable  to  inject  demulcents  into  the 
bladder.  A  free  exhibition  of  fluids  will  dilute  the  urine 
and  render  it  less  acrid.  In  all  cases  the  cause  must  be 
removed. 

Dysuria  is  pain  in  expulsion  of  urine,  seen  in  inflam- 
mation of  the  urethral  canal,  presence  of  cystic  calculus, 
and  some  other  cases. 

Strangury,  as  seen  in  spasm  or  inflammation  of  the  neck 
of  the  bladder,  is  painful  passage  of  urine  guttatim. 

Cystitis,  inflammation  of  the  bladder,  is  very  rare, 
though  it  may  arise  from  several  different  causes,  such  as 
excessive  use  of  certain  diuretics,  cantharides  more  espe- 
cially, injuries,  and  extension  of  inflammation  from  neigh- 
bouring parts.  It  is  also  said  to  be  attributable  to 
acrimony  of  the  urine.  The  inflammation  may  involve 
part  or  the  whole  of  the  organ.  The  neck  is  most  fre- 
quently the  seat  of  the  circumscribed  form,  probably  as  a 
result  of  spasm.  The  lining  membrane  may  become 
involved  in  catarrhal  diseases  of  the  urethra.  When  the 
greater  part  of  the  organ  is  affected  examination  per 
rectum  detects  heat  and  pain  on  pressure  of  the  bladder. 
There  is  retention  of  urine,  which,  when  evacuated,  is 
found  to  be  bloody,  albuminous,  and  thick,  with  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  mucus.  Colicky  pains,  looking 
round  at  the  flank,  and  uneasiness  are  present,  spasmodic 
contractions  of  the  cremaster  (in  the  bull),  and  acute 
febrile  signs. 

Results. — Those  enumerated  are  resolution,  death  from 
exhaustion,  rupture  of  the  bladder,  and  uraemia.  With 
regard  to  the  latter,  it  must  be  a  direct  result  of  destruc- 
tion of  the  vesical  epithelium,  for  under  normal  conditions 
this  is  a  very  decided  impediment  to  reabsorption  of 
urine. 

Treatment, — When  possible,  injection  of  mucilaginous 


THE    URINARY    APPARATUS.  343 

substances  into  the  bladder,  after  drawing  off  its  contents 
with  the  catheter ;  also  free  administration  of  water  and 
mucilaginous  drinks,  warm-water  applications  to  the 
abdomen;  warm  sedative  injections,  as  infusion  of 
poppies ;  sedative  and  febrifuge  agents,  which  are  not 
excreted  by  the  kidneys.  Of  course,  careful  nursing  is 
required. 

Spasm  op  the  Neck  op  the  Bladder  is  not  frequent  in 
the  ox,  but  some  cases  have  been  recorded. 

Rupture  op  the  Bladder  results  from  over-distension. 
It  is  denoted  by  sudden  cessation  of  the  acute  signs  of  reten- 
tion, and  especially  collapse  of  the  organ,  as  felt  per  rectum, 
without  any  passage  of  the  urine  externally.  Uraemic 
symptoms  occur  and  bring  about  death,  which  may  take 
place  from  collapse  or  the  bursting  of  the  viscus.  When 
there  is  retention  of  urine,  throwing  the  animal  for 
operation  may  cause  this  accident.  Sometimes  it  has 
occurred  when  the  animal  fell  in  dying.  The  state  of  the 
peritoneum  ought  to  inform  us  whether  such  has  been  the 
case,  or  the  flooding  of  the  abdomen  with  urine  took  place 
earlier.      This  lesion  is,  of  course,  fatal. 

Inversion  op  the  Bladder  is  seen  in  the  female  animal, 
and  is  due  to  violent  parturient  throes.  Amatage  has  seen  it 
follow  the  administration  of  irritant  medicines.  Youatt 
quotes  a  case  where  the  wall  of  the  vagina  rup- 
tured, and  the  bladder  was  herniated  through  it.  The 
practitioner  in  attendance  punctured  this,  and  the  urine 
escaped.  In  a  true  case  of  inversion  {prolapsus  vesica) 
the  organ  appears  as  a  red  tumour,  projecting  from  the 
floor  of  the  vulva,  and  having  urine  constantly  trickling 
from  it.  Thus,  the  urine  constantly  drops  from  the 
urino-generative  opening,  and  excoriates  the  surrounding 
parts.  In  such  a  case  it  is  advisable  to  slaughter  the 
patient,  for  the  accident  is  extremely  liable  to  recur. 
After  straining  pains  have  ceased  the  organ  may  be  re- 
turned. Little  difficulty  is  generally  experienced  in 
accomplishing  this,  because  of  the  large  size  of  the 
urethral  canal  in  the  female.  In  a  case  of  rupture  of  the 
wall  of  the  vulva,  with  hernia  of  the  bladder,  the  latter 


344  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

organ  having  been  returned,  the  opening  may  be  closed 
by  suture. 

A  Pervious  Condition  op  the  Urachus  is  sometimes 
seen  in  calves.  This  passage,  which  in  the  foetus  extends 
from  the  peculiarly  elongated  bladder  at  the  umbilicus  to 
the  allantois,  becomes,  under  normal  circumstances, 
plugged  with  lymph,  which  undergoes  organisation  and 
degeneration  when  the  bladder  recedes  from  the  umbilicus. 
In  scrofulous  subjects,  especially,  this  process  does  not 
occur  properly ;  the  lymph  thrown  out  only  becomes  im- 
perfectly organised,  loosens  from  its  position,  and  there 
is  a  constant  dribbling  of  urine  through  the  umbilicus. 
We  have  known  a  case  in  which  a  plug  of  lymph  which 
had  receded  into  the  bladder  became  fixed,  and  thus 
opposed  the  exit  of  urine  per  urethram.  Straining  led 
to  prolapsus  recti,  and  necessitated  slaughter.  In  these 
cases  a  ligature  around  the  umbilicus  must  be  resorted  to, 
or  sutures  may  be  inserted.  The  abnormal  condition  is 
liable  to  disappear  with  development,  for  this  condition  is 
of  greatest  frequency  in  animals  born  prematurely. 

Calculus  in  the  Bladder. — Cystic  or  vesical  calculus 
.depends  upon  excess  of  salines  in  the  blood  or  upon 
retention  of  urine.  It  is  most  frequent  in  the  male,  for 
in  him  the  urethral  passage  is  much  smaller  than  that 
of  the  female,  and  is  often  attributable  to  a  considerable 
quality  of  special  salines  in  the  food  or  water,  such  as 
the  presence  of  many  phosphates,  as  in  oil- cake  and 
turnips.  Sometimes  renal  calculi  travel  along  the  ureter, 
and  entering  the  bladder  form  the  nuclei  of  larger  con- 
cretions, for  cystic  calculi  are  almost  invariably  laminated 
and  concentrically  arranged  around  some  nucleus  or  other. 
They  may  attain  a  considerable  size  without  giving  rise 
to  much  inconvenience,  or  may  cause  special  symptoms. 
Sabulous  matter  is  sedimentary  deposit  from  the  urine 
in  the  bladder ;  it  is  largely  passed  off  by  the  urine,  but 
accumulates  in  the  viscus  in  considerable  quantity,  or 
the  deposit  may  assume  a  crystalline  form  known  as 
"  graveV  This  also  is  partially  expelled  with  the  urine, 
but  frequently  becomes   embedded  in  the  mucous  mem- 


THE  UEINARY  APPARATUS.  345 

brane,  and  gives  rise  to  irritability  of  the  bladder  and 
incontinence  of  urine.  Fiirstenburg  gives  the  following 
composition  as  an  average  analysis  of  urinary  calculi  of 
the  ox  : — Carbonate  of  lime,  84'8  ;  carbonate  of  magnesia, 
10*0;  carbonate  of  iron,  0"6  ;  organic  matter,  1*6;  water 
and  loss,  1*6 ;  silicic  acid,  inconstant.  The  presence  of 
calculus  in  the  bladder  sometimes  gives  rise  to  hgematuria ; 
generally,  however,  no  alteration  is  observable  in  the 
character  of  the  urine  further  than  a  somewhat  copious 
sediment.  In  all  cases  there  is  a  straddling  movement  with 
the  hind  limbs  and  stiffness  about  the  loins.  Sometimes 
the  stone  becomes  fixed  in  the  urethral  passage,  whereby 
it  interferes  with  the  expulsion  of  the  urine,  and  the 
signs  of  retention  are  present  and  urgent.  This  con- 
dition takes  place  in  the  male,  and  the  urethra  becomes 
distended  with  urine  to  the  obstructiouo  It  may  result 
in  rupture  of  the  urethral  passage,  a  condition  which  may 
also  arise  from  injury  (see  ^Veterinarian,^  vol.  xxi,  p.  204). 
Exploration  per  rectum  is  often  useful  in  cases  of  cystic 
calculus.  The  bladder  may  be  found  distended  with  urine, 
as  in  spasm  of  its  neck,  but  the  calculus  is  perceptible,  and 
sometimes  may  be  removed  by  pressure,  whereupon  a  rapid 
flow  of  urine  results.  In  these  cases,  too,  there  is  not  gene- 
rally complete  retention,  but  the  flow,  at  first  free,  suddenly 
ceases,  and  the  animal  lashes  its  tail,  grinds  its  teeth,  moves 
the  hind  feet,  and  makes  violent  expulsive  efforts,  which 
only  tend  to  fix  the  obstructing  agent  more  firmly  in  the 
passage.  Surgical  methods  are  resorted  to  for  the  relief 
of  this  condition.  Lithontriptic  or  "  slow  dissolving  medi- 
cinal agents  ^'  have  been  found  wanting ;  stimulants  are 
only  palliative.      There  are  three  forms  of  operation. 

Lithecstasy — Dilatation  of  the  Urethra — is  especially 
resorted  to  in  the  female.  It  consists  in  the  frequent  dis- 
tension of  a  bladder  introduced  into  the  urethral  passage, 
leading  to  dilatation  to  such  an  extent  that  the  stone  may 
pass.      It  is  seldom  resorted  to  in  veterinary  practice. 

Lithotrity  consists  in  crushing  the  stone,  whereby,  being 
reduced  to  the  state  of  gravel,  it  can  be  expelled  through 
the  urethra.      The  instruments  by  means  of  which  this  is 


346  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

done  are  large  screw  forceps  curved  and  tootlied  at  the 
end.  They  are  passed  through  the  urethra  of  the  patient 
(from,  the  perineal  incision  in  the  male),  and  the  stone, 
having  been  grasped,  is  broken  by  a  few  turns  of  the 
screw  handle.  This  operation  is  said  to  be  facilitated 
by  frequent  injection  of  a  weak  solution  of  hydrochloric 
acid. 

Lithotomy — "  Cutting  for  the  stone  '^ — consists  in  in- 
cisions through  the  urethral  walls,  whereby  the  passage 
is  rendered  large  enough  for  extraction  of  the  stone. 
The  presence  of  calculus  having  been  confirmed  by  intro- 
duction of  a  sound  through  the  vulva  and  urethra  of  the 
female,  or  through  an  incision  made  down  on  the  urethra 
at  the  ischial  arch  in  the  male,  and  so  into  the  bladder, 
the  walls  of  the  passage  are  incised  obliquely  upwards 
and  outwards  (whereby  the  artery  of  the  bulb  is  avoided) 
by  a  concealed  bistoury  and  the  stone  withdrawn  with  for- 
ceps. Subsequently  in  the  male,  the  wound  requires  to 
be  closed  by  means  of  sutures  after  the  bladder  has  been 
thoroughly  washed  out.  This  wound  will  gradually  close, 
but  the  bowels  must  be  kept  in  a  slightly  relaxed  state. 
These  operations,  however,  are  seldom  performed  on  the 
oxj  we  have  not,  therefore,  given  minutely  such  details 
as  the  practitioner  will  derive  from  works  upon  the  sur- 
gery of  the  horse.  The  bladder  of  the  ox  is  much  more 
thoroughly  invested  by  peritoneum  than  that  of  the 
horse,  and  extends  somewhat  further  forwards  into  the 
abdominal  cavity;  thus,  it  might,  in  cases  of  emergency, 
be  punctured  through  the  walls  of  the  abdomen  in  front 
of  the  symphysis  ;  again,  it  has  been  suggested  to  evacuate 
the  contents  of  the  organ  by  incision  from  the  rectum. 
These  formidable  operations  are  seldom  required. 

Tumours  in  the  Bladder  are  sometimes  found  post 
mortem  in  cases  of  incontinence  of  urine.  They  are  very 
rare,  and  seem  to  be  of  an  epitheliomatous  nature.^ 

1  Mr.  H.  King  Shaw  exhibited  at  the  meeting  of  the  Central  Veterinary 
Society,  November,  1880,  a  most  interesting  case  of  vesicular  polypus  from  a 
cow.  The  principal  tumour  was  pedunculated  and  of  considerable  size,  and 
two  others  were  just  commencing  to  grow.  The  specimen,  without  any 
history,  hud  been  obtained  from  a  slaughter-house. 


THE    URINARY    APPARATUS.  347 

Calculus  op  the  Urethra  is  not  uncommon  in  the  ox, 
but  is  generally  a  small  vesical  stone  on  its  way  to  the 
exterior.  It  has  been  stopped  either  by  spasm  of  the 
urethra  or  by  the  curvatures  of  the  passage  through  the 
penis,  and  gives  rise  to  retention  of  urine  of  an  obsti- 
nate character.  The  symptoms  are  urgent,  and  must  be 
relieved  by  incision  either  longitudinally  or  obliquely 
across  the  direction  of  the  passage.  The  patient  must  not 
be  cast  for  the  operation.  There  will  be  little  difficulty  in 
determining  the  seat  of  obstruction,  for  the  urethral 
canal  is  distended  to  the  same  point. 

Stricture  op  the  Urethra  may  be  organic  or  functional. 
In  the  former  case  there  is  thickening  of  the  lining  mem- 
brane of  the  canal,  in  the  latter  spasm  of  the  accele- 
rator urinae  muscle.  These  give  rise  to  more  or  less 
complete  impediment  to  the  passage  of  urine.  They  are 
seldom  seen  in  cattle. 

Preputial  Calculus  generally  assumes  the  form  of 
calcareous  deposit  around  the  hairs  hanging  in  a  tuft 
from  the  prepuce.  These  deposits  are  mainly  phosphatic, 
and  depend  upon  excess  of  salts  in  the  food.  The  slow 
and  unenergetic  expulsion  of  urine  predisposes  to  their 
formation.  They  must  be  removed  by  excision  of  the 
hairs,  around  which  they  sometimes  accumulate  to  such 
a  degree  as  to  cause  obstruction  to  the  flow  of  urine. 
Modification  of  diet  so  as  to  avoid  excess  of  salines,  also 
free  supply  of  water  and  other  solvents,  must  be  looked 
upon  as  prophylactics  against  calculous  diseases. 


348  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY, 


CHAPTER  VII.— DISEASES  OF  THE  OEGANS 
OF  SPECIAL  SENSE. 

Section  1. — Abnoemalities  op  the   Skin. 

The  skin  of  the  ox  is  remarkable  for  its  thickness,  and 
in  some  parts  it  is  very  loose^  as  where  it  forms  the 
"  dewlap/^  In  other  respects  it  somewhat  closely  resembles 
that  of  other  quadrupeds.  Under  healthy  conditions  it  is 
soft,  elastic,  and  pliable,  and  the  coat  lies  evenly  and 
smoothly.  The  animal  or  its  fellows  apply  sharp  rasping 
friction  to  the  surface  of  the  integument  by  means  of  the 
rough  tongue  with  its  horny  epithelium.  Ordinarily  the 
skin  is  loose  and  flexible,  but  when  the  animal  is  in  a 
state  of  ill  health  it  becomes  dry,  harsh,  and  tightly 
bound  to  the  tissues  beneath  it.  This  state  is  known  as 
''  hidebound/*  and  is  not  a  disease.  It  is  generally  accom- 
panied by  a  ''  staring  coat/'  due  to  erection  of  the  hairs 
in  consequence  of  the  minute  muscular  bundle  of  each 
hair-follicle  contracting  in  a  spasmodic  manner,  as  a  result 
of  perversion  of  nervous  energy.  This  is  one  of  the  general 
signs  of  ill  health  to  which  we  have  had  occasion  fre- 
quently to  allude.  It  especially  accompanies  the  rigors 
which  are  indicative  of  the  invasion  of  a  febrile  attack. 
The  disorders  of  the  skin  are  divisible  in  the  following 
manner,  primarily,  into  two  classes  : 

^Inflammatory — Eczema,  Psoriasis,  Impetigo,  Erythema, 

I       Ecthyma,  Herpes,  Urticaria,  Pemphigus,  Furunculus. 
Hypertrophic— 'Nadvns,   Warts,   Elephantiasis   (Sclero- 
NON-PAEASITIC  <{      derma),  Dermo-pilous  cysts.  Pityriasis,  Keratoid. 

I  Atrophic — Alopecia. 
Functional — Bloody  sweat.  Emphysema,  (Edema,  Pru- 
1^     ritus. 
p  J  Animal — Phthiriasis,  (Estriasis,  Acariasis. 

L  Vegetable — Tinea ;  var.  (1)  tonsurans,  (2)  favosa. 

In   examining  the  list   of  skin   diseases   affecting  the 


THE    SKIN.  349 

horse  we  are  enabled  to  trace  the  majority  of  them  to 
improper  or  neglected  grooming  and  exposure  of  various 
kinds,  either  local  or  general.  These  influences  seldom 
affect  the  ox,  and  his  skin  is  less  delicate  than  that  of  the 
horse ;  hence  it  is  less  liable  to  disorder.  Nevertheless, 
as  may  be  seen  from  the  above  list  the  diseases  of  the 
skin  of  the  ox  are  numerous,  and  deserving  of  careful 
attention. 

Suhsection  1. — Non-parasitic  Diseases. 

Inflammatory,  Non-parasitic  Disorders  may    be 

included  under  the  term  Dermatitis.  Of  these,  Ery- 
thema is  the  most  simple.  It  consists  of  a  diffused 
redness  of  a  portion  of  the  superficial  layer  of  the 
dermis,  which  gradually  blends  with  the  healthy  skin. 
It  is  characterised  by  disappearance  of  colour  on  pres- 
sure, but  its  hasty  recurrence.  Other  signs  of  inflam- 
mation are  little  marked.  It  leads  to  vesication,  effusion, 
and  sometimes  ulceration.  It  depends  upon  slight 
irritation  long  continued,  as  friction,  dirt,  mild  irri- 
tants (as  urine  in  cases  of  incontinency),  and  in  some 
cases  is  attributable  to  intrinsic  causes,  such  as  indiges- 
tion and  ingestion  of  acrid  matters.  Treatment  is  seldom 
required  for  simple,  though  a  laxative  dose  is  beneficial  in 
severe  cases ;  also  lead  lotion  may  be  applied  locally. 
This  disease  sometimes  tends  to  a  chronic  character, 
as  when  it  consists  in  ulcerations  of  a  sluggish  nature, 
of  which  the  most  important  are  those  the  seat  of  which 
is  the  teats.  This  is  described  as  Eeythema  mammillarum, 
sore  teats  J  or  chro7iic  erytJwma,  and  occurs  especially  in 
newly- calved  animals,  though  not  infrequent  under  other 
circumstances.  In  some  cows  the  skin  is  very  delicate, 
and  this  disorder  is  particularly  liable  to  develop,  and  is 
difficult  to  cure.  They  are  constantly  affected  while  the 
calf  roughly  manipulates  the  organ,  and  the  ulcers  assume  a 
very  sluggish  character.  The  calf  should  be  removed  and 
fed  by  hand,  the  milk  daily  drawn  off  by  means  of  a  milk 
syphon,  and  refrigerant  lotion   should  be  applied  to   the 


350  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

affected  part ;  a  lajfative  dose  also  may  be  administered. 
Sometimes  the  disorder  does  not  lead  to  ulceration^  but 
in  other  cases  even  the  gland  tissue  becomes  involved, 
and  when  the  heat  and  pain  in  the  parts  is  considerable, 
the  precautions  suggested  for  acute  mammitis  must  be 
tried.  Farmers  usually  keep  elder  ointment  about  them 
for  cases  of  this  kind,  but  the  ordinary  Glycerinum  Acidi 
Carbolici  will  prove  most  useful  when  the  calf  has  been 
removed,  for  it  will  also  keep  away  the  flies. 

Eczema  is  the  vesicular  stage  of  dermatitis,  and,  there- 
fore, is  generally  preceded  by  erythema.  The  surface  of 
the  skin  presents  a  number  of  vesicles,  while  a  somewhat 
acrid  fluid  exudes  upon  it,  and  the  hairs  fall  off.  The 
process  is  accompanied  by  a  considerable  amount  of  itch- 
ing, and  the  friction  with  which  the  patient  endeavours 
to  relieve  this  renders  the  parts  raw  and  bloody.  The 
vesicular  eruption  is  recurrent,  and  thus  the  case  lasts  for 
some  time ;  it  is  liable  to  lead  to  cracks  in  the  skin  or  to 
resolution.  In  the  latter  case  the  secretion  dries,  and 
protects  the  inflamed  parts.  When  this  disease  becomes 
chronic  it  leads  to  thickening  of  the  skin,  due  to  a  horny 
change  of  the  epidermis  and  induration  of  the  dermis 
which  is  traversed  by  elongated  sluggish  ulcers.  This 
Armatage  describes  as  Psoeiasis,  and  he  says :  '^  The 
parts  where  this  disease  is  located  are  the  legs  chiefly, 
one,  two,  or  all  of  which  may  be  affected.  We  have  seen 
cattle  of  all  ages  turned  upon  clay  pastures,  and  those  in 
which  lime  abounds,  suffering  repeatedly  from  the  com- 
bined irritation  of  these  substances  with  wet  and  cold,  as 
well  as  severe  lameness,  to  the  great  detriment  of  con- 
dition, health,  and  even  sloughing  of  hoofs.'^  He  sug- 
gests prolonged  fomentations,  followed  by  poultices, 
a  laxative  dose,  and  clean  quarters ;  also  doses  of  Liquor 
Arsenicalis  in  long-standing  cases.  Simple  erythema 
almost  always  depends  upon  improper  diet,  and  is  asso- 
ciated with  special  changes  of  surrounding  influences.  In 
treatment  of  it  the  food  must  be  changed,  a  cathartic  dose 
given,  and  weak  carbolic  solutions  may  be  applied  locally. 

HERrES. — When  the  vesicles  of  eczema  arc  arranged  in 


THE    SKIN.  351 

a  gradually  increasing  circle  they  are  sometimes  described 
as  non-contagious  ringworm  or  herpes.  This  disease  is 
subacute ;  several  rings  may  be  present,  and  it  is  difficult 
to  account  for  their  form.  "When  the  vesicles  burst  their 
discharge  forms  a  scab.  No  special  methods  of  treatment 
are  necessary.      Herpes  is  not  frequent  in  cattle. 

Impetigo — Pustular  Dermatitis — results  from  the  power- 
ful irritant  action  of  certain  plants,  especially  upon  the 
delicate  skin  of  calves.  It  has  also  been  traced  to  special 
acrid  plants  growing  in  pastures,  and  has  been  found  to 
most  often  affect  animals  with  white  legs  and  muzzles, 
which  parts  it  usually  involves.  A  crop  of  pustules  forms, 
and  by  the  bursting  and  aggregation  of  these  a  yellowish 
scab  is  formed,  which  is  persistent,  and  remarkably  dis- 
figures the  animal  when  it  involves  the  muffle,  as  it  is 
apt  to  do.  Change  of  pasture,  and  nitrate  of  zinc  or  of 
mercury  ointment,  applied  to  the  parts,  will  generally 
effect  a  cure.  A  cathartic  dose  will  remove  the  irritant 
if  it  has  been  ingested,  from  the  alimentary  canal,  for 
undoubtedly  some  of  these  cases  are  due  to  disorder  of 
the  digestive  tracts,  though  others  depend  upon  direct 
irritation  of  the  affected  parts. 

Ueticaeia — Nettle-rash — Surfeit — is  characterised  by 
the  sudden  appearance  of  patches  of  elastic  prominences 
of  the  skin,  which  are  in  a  constant  state  of  itchiness, 
and  disappear  almost  as  rapidly  as  they  came.  Several 
forms  have  been  described,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
swellings  and  their  heat.  The  most  usual  form  is  urti- 
caria tuherosa.  This  is  sometimes  very  dangerous,  since 
it  may  affect  the  structures  of  the  muzzle  and  interfere  with 
respiration  and  ingestion  of  food.  It  is  vulgarly  termed 
'^  sting e/^  "  hlain/'  or  "  singe/'  probably  on  account  of 
the  manifest  tingling  sensation  to  which  it  gives  rise,  and 
which  renders  the  animal  very  uneasy.  The  causes  of  this 
disorder  are  a  high  surrounding  temperature,  a  rich  pas- 
ture (especially  after  a  run  on  poor  land),  also  certain 
constituents  of  food,  and  errors  in  dieting.  Manifestly  a 
purgative  is  indicated  in  these  cases,  salines  being  pre- 
ferable to   others,    and   sedative   agents  may  be  applied 


352  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

to  the  surface  of  the  skin.  Some  authorities  trace  this 
disorder  to  defective  action  of  excretory  organs,  notably 
the  kidneys.  In  cases  of  '^  stinge'^  tracheotomy  may  be 
necessary.      Urticaria  is  essentially  a  serous  effusion. 

Ecthyma  or  Acne  is  the  formation  of  discrete  (or  sepa- 
rate) abscesses,  of  various  sizes,  in  skin  substance,  a 
sebaceous  gland  being  generally  involved.  These  burst 
externally,  producing  a  brownish  scab.  "  They  may  be 
frequently  seen  if  carefully  sought  for  upon  those  parts  of 
cattle  covered  by  thin  skin  and  few  hairs,  as  upon  the 
udder,  and  about  the  vulva,  inside  the  thighs,  &c." 
Constitutional  symptoms  are  seldom  present ;  the  dis- 
order seems  to  depend  upon  local  influences.  When  the 
pus  has  become  evacuated  the  pustules  heal  with  facility. 

FuEUNCULUs  is  intense  localised  dermatitis,  involving 
the  subcutaneous  areolar  tissue,  and  leading  to  death  of 
a  portion  of  structure,  which  is  expelled  as  the  ^^  core'^  of 
the  boil.  The  inflammation  runs  high,  and  requires  to 
be  determined  to  suppuration  by  poultices  and  fomenta- 
tions, and,  after  bursting,  the  usual  treatment  of  abscess. 

Carbuncle  differs  from  boil  in  the  large  amount  of 
tissue  which  dies,  and  requires  to  be  removed  by  slough- 
ing. It  is  generally  due  to  specific  influences,  as  in  cases 
of  anthrax.  It  constitutes  a  serious  drain  on  the  system ; 
hence  removal  of  the  dead  parts  with  the  knife,  anti- 
septic dressings,  and  (internally)  stimulant  tonics  are 
indicated. 

Pemphigus. — Mr.  Isaac  Seaman,  of  Saffron  Walden, 
gives  a  good  case  of  this  disease,  as  affecting  a  three- 
year-old  bullock  (see  'Veterinarian,'  vol.  xxv,  p.  262). 
There  was  diffused  inflammation  of  the  skin,  with  effusion 
of  serum,  "  which  elevated  the  cuticle  in  places,  forming 
bullsB  or  bladders,  varying  in  size  from  a  small  nut  to  a 
fowl's  egg.  In  other  places  a  thin  transparent  fluid  was  drop- 
ping from  the  hair,  and  in  some  places  in  quite  a  stream.'' 
The  mucous  membranes  also  seemed  involved,  and  consti- 
tutional symptoms  ran  very  high.  The  case  terminated 
successfully  after  about  a  week,  but  the  hair  was  appa- 
rently lost  from  several  parts  of  the  body.     This  disease  is 


THE    SKIN.  353 

sometimes  enzootic;  often  it  assumes  a  chronic  character, 
and  in  some  instances  the  effused  fluid  is  intermingled 
with  blood  or  pus.  It  depends  upon  irritation  of  the 
alimentary  canal,  and  must  be  treated  by  evacuation  of 
the  contents  of  the  blebs,  and  subsequent  dressings  with 
glycerin  or  oxide-of-zinc  ointment.  A  cathartic  should 
also  be  administed. 

Hypertrophic  Disorders  of  the  Skin  are  sometimes 
seen  in  the  ox.  Of  these,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  is 
Keratoid  change  of  the  Epidermis.  Hypertrophy  of  the 
cuticle  results  from  continued  slight  friction  or  from 
gradual  increase  in  size  of  a  subcutaneous  accumulation 
of  fluid  with  a  tendency  to  burst.  Thus,  in  every  case,  it 
must  be  considered  to  be  an  effort  to  strengthen  the  skin, 
and  the  better  to  adapt  it  to  new  conditions.  A  most 
remarkable  case  of  this  disease  has  just  come  under  our 
notice.  A  beast  has  a  tumour,  of  a  globular  form,  56 
inches  in  circumference,  in  front  of  the  knee,  this  contains 
pus,  and  the  skin  investing  it  has  a  flocculent  epidermis 
of  stringy  horn. 

Pityriasis  is  that  scurfy  condition  of  the  skin  which 
not  infrequently  affects  cattle  without  any  other  indica- 
tions of  disorder  than  some  local  irritation.  The  scurf 
has  a  peculiar  branny  character,  whence  the  name  of  the 
disease.  It  occurs  most  frequently  in  young  animals,  and 
is  associated  with  mal-nutrition,  whether  from  imperfect 
supply  of  food  or  from  deficiency  of  nutritive  materials  in 
it.  A  change  of  diet  to  richer  food,  and  the  inunction  of 
the  surface  with  some  sedative  must  be  adopted. 

N^vus  is  hypertrophy  of  the  superficial  layer  of  the 
dermis,  constituting  a  slight  swelling  composed  of  blood- 
vessels, often  having  an  erectile  character.  It  is  rare  in 
the  lower  animals,  but  a  congenital  case  is  given  by  Mr. 
L.  Barker,  in  the  '  Veterinary  Journal,^  vol.  iv,  p.  255.  In 
this,  intermittent  free  haemorrhage  took  place,  and  mate- 
rially reduced  the  strength  of  the  animal,  but  a  cure  was 
ultimately  effected.  These  tumours  are  liable  to  injury, 
and  may,  when  small  or  of  moderate  size,  be  removed  by 
the  knife  or  by  cauterisation. 

23 


354  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

Dermopilous  Cysts  are  involutions  of  the  integument. 
They  are  occasionally  found  in  various  parts  of  the  body, 
and  sometimes  so  deeply  placed  in  viscera,  such  as  the 
testis,  that  the  difficulty  in  attributing  them  to  growth 
from  the  skin  has  compelled  pathologists  to  consider  them 
specimens  of  ^'foetus  in  foetuj'  Generally  a  small  fistu- 
lous opening  from  the  cyst  discharges  a  fluid  consisting 
of  watery  matter  and  epithelial  debris  on  to  the  surface 
of  the  body,  and  a  few  long  hairs  may  protrude  through 
the  opening.  The  discharge  is  sometimes  offensive ; 
then  the  cyst  may  be  removed  by  means  of  the  knife 
(see  'Edinburgh  Veterinary  Eeview,'  vol.  v,  p.  593). 

Elephantiasis — ^hypertrophy  of  the  subcutaneous  areolar 
tissue,  with  increase  in  its  density — is  very  rare  in  the 
ox.  Under  this  heading  has  been  described  a  specimen 
ofe-skin  disease  of  the  calf,  in  the  Museum  of  the  Royal 
Veterinary  College.  The  skin  in  this  animal  is  in  plates  like 
that  of  the  rhinoceros,  but  on  a  smaller  scale.  This  seems 
a  case  of  the  disease  described  in  man  as  Scleroderma. 

Waets  —  '^  angle  berries  "  —  verrucce  —  are  epidermic 
growths  primarily,  but  subsequently  the  true  skin  becomes 
involved  and  hypertrophied,  and  thus  are  produced  on  the 
surface  of  the  body  tumours  of  various  sizes,  confluent  or 
distinct.  These,  when  subjected  to  friction,  ulcerate,  and 
thus  ugly  fungus-like  masses,  in  a  raw  condition,  project 
from  the  surface.  They  are  most  unsightly,  and  bleed  on 
the  slightest  pressure;  are  principally  seen  about  the 
genital  apertures,  eyelids,  lips,  and  teats.  We  are  not 
assured  of  the  cause  of  these  growths,  but  in  the  majority 
of  cases  dirt  seems  to  be  the  exciting  influence.  Irrita- 
tion of  any  kind  may  give  rise  to  these  circumscribed 
dermal  hypertrophies.  A  most  singular  case,  reported  by 
Youatt,  indicates  their  constitutional  origin  in  some  cases  : 
"At  uncertain  intervals,  from  six  to  nine  or  ten  months, 
a  cow  suddenly  lost  flesh,  her  coat  stared,  she  would 
scarcely  eat,  and  at  length  rumination  was  entirely  sus- 
pended; then  would  appear,  and  nearly  all  over  her,  and 
particularly  about  the  udder  and  in  the  mouth  and  on  the 
evelids,  a  thick  crop  of  warts,  varying  from  the  size  of  a 


THE    SKIN.  855 

millet  seed  to  twice  that  bulk.  In  a  fortniglit  they  were 
gone/'  We  have  already  had  occasion  to  notice  warty 
growths,  as  they  are  sometimes  found  in  the  oesophagus. 
When  developed  on  the  udder  and  teats  they  prove  very  un- 
satisfactory, for  they  make  the  animal  troublesome  to  milk. 

Treatment. — Where  these  growths  prove  unsightly  or 
detrimental  they  must  be  surgically  removed,  either  with  the 
knife  and  actual  cautery,  or  by  means  of  ligature.  They  are 
generally  pedunculated,  so  that  the  latter  can  be  applied 
with  facility.  Some  prefer  to  destroy  by  the  application 
of  caustic  agents,  but  this  is  a  slow  process. 

Atrophic  Diseases. — Alopecia  or  Depilation — bald- 
ness of  the  skin — sometimes  results  from  disease.  Occa- 
sionally calves  are  born  in  this  state  (see  '  Veterinary 
Journal,'  vol.  x,  p.  302).  It  is  hopeless  to  endeavour 
to  cure  this  in  congenital  cases,  but  when  it  is  attributed 
to  disease,  mild  repeated  stimulation,  especially  with  can- 
tharides,  may  promote  renewal  of  hair.  In  man  it  is 
sometimes  due  to  parasites. 

Functional  Disorders.— (Edema,  v.  Anasarca,  is  not  a 
rare  affection  of  cattle,  in  which  there  is  dropsy  of  the  sub- 
cutaneous tissue  of  the  lower  parts  of  the  body.  It  may 
depend  upon  inflammation  of  the  skin,  but  far  more  fre- 
quently is  due  to  constitutional  disorder,  as  anaemia  and 
hydraemia.  It  accompanies  dropsical  affections  of  other 
serous  cavities. 

Treatment  of  this  state  comprises  tonic  means  and 
sedative  diuretics,  such,  especially,  as  digitalis.  Careful 
nursing  and  local  friction  by  means  of  hand-rubbing  of 
the  affected  parts  will  tend  to  promote  absorption.  This 
disease  is  not  so  frequent  in  the  ox  as  in  the  horse. 

Emphysema  is  escape  of  gas  into  the  subcutaneous 
areolar  tissue,  dependent  upon  decomposition  of  the  blood 
or  of  structural  elements,  or  some  profound  changes  in 
the  blood  of  the  part  due  to  nervous  influence,  sometimes 
also  to  entry  of  air  either  through  an  external  wound  or 
a  tear  in  lung  substance.  This  is  most  often  seen  in 
black  -  quarter ;  sometimes  the  foetus,  on  birth,  is  found  to 
be  in  an  emphysematous  condition.      In  these  cases  there 


856  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY, 

is  a  peculiar  crackling  beneath  the  epidermis  when  pressure 
is  brought  to  bear  upon  the  part.  The  gas  is  at  liberty  to 
escape  if  incisions  or  punctures  are  made  through  the  skin  ; 
in  addition,  the  surface  should  be  manipulated  freely. 
Sometimes  the  patient  will  require  a  stimulant  dose. 

Bloody  Sweat,  as  occurring  in  oxen,  has  been  dealt 
with  by  Count  Ercolani,  the  celebrated  Italian  veterinary 
professor;  his  conclusions  are  given  in  volume  iii  of  the 
'  Edinburgh  Veterinary  Review,^  page  567. 

Peuritus — Neurosis  (Law)  consists  in  itchiness  of  the 
skin  without  any  appreciable  structural  change.  It  is  not 
rare  in  cattle,  and  causes  a  considerable  degree  of  rest- 
lessness, so  that  the  animal  applies  friction  to  the  affected 
part  until  it  becomes  raw.  Such  cases  are  generally 
attributable  to  excessively  high  feeding  and  want  of  exer- 
cise. They  must  be  treated  with  saline  cathartics  and 
sedative  applications. 

.  The  effects  of  colour  on  diseases  of  the  slcin  are  sometimes 
marked.  White  portions  of  the  skin  seem  to  be  more 
liable  to  disease  than  those  which  contain  pigment.  In  cer- 
tain forms  of  vegetable  poisoning  sloughing  of  only  the 
white  portions  of  the  skin  is  seen,  and  in  cases  of  some 
forms  of  impetigo  it  has  been  stated  that  the  white  por- 
tions of  the  skin  especially  are  involved.  There  is  related 
a  peculiar  case,  illustrating  the  effects  of  colour,  in  the 
'  Yeterinarian,"'  1834,  p.  97  : — A  white  cow,  with  some  black 
spots  on  various  parts  of  the  body,  suffered  from  acute 
fever,  with  a  peculiar  hardness  of  the  skin.  Shortly,  the 
cuticle,  and  with  it  the  hairs,  separated  from  the  dermis, 
except  where  the  skin  was  black ;  the  coloured  spots  re- 
mained quite  soft  and  healthy.  The  hair  gradually  grew 
again^  except  on  the  shoulders. 

Subsection  2. — Parasitic  Disorders  of  the  SJcin. 

Some  of  these  are  attributable  to  Dermatozoa  (animal 
parasites,  or  Ectozoa),  others  to  Dermatophyta.  The  former 
are  most  important,  the  latter  are  acquiring  fresh  interest 
as  we  become  more  acquainted  with  the  vegetable  forms 
which  give  rise  to  disease. 


THE    SKIN. 


357 


Animal  Parasitic  Diseases  of  the  Shin  of  Cattle. 

Mange — Acaeiasis — is  a  contagious  disorder  due  to  tlie 
presence  and  ravages  of  those  Araclinidan  or  spider-like 
parasites  generally  known  as  the  Acarus  hovis,  which 
comprises  two  forms  (according  to  Gerlach)_,  Bermato- 
dectes  hovis  and  Symohiotes  hovis.  Of  these,  the  former  is 
most  frequent,  the  latter  being  rare.  Mange  of  the  ox 
is,  therefore,  due  to  Dermatodectes,  which  lives  on  the 
surface  of  the  epidermis,  but  gives  rise  to  much  irritation 
by  biting.  Its  most  frequent  seat  is  on  the  withers  and 
the  root  of  the  tail,  but  this  preference  is  not  very  marked. 
From  the  parts  primarily  affected  the  disease  extends,  and 
passes  through  its  various  stages,  during  the  more  acute 
of  which  there  is  intense  itching.      Circumscribed  nodular 


Fig.  68. — Mange  insects  {Acarus  hovis).     (Dobson.) 

projections    (papules)   first  appear;   these  become  vesicles 
and  burst,  giving  exit  to  a  watery  fluid,  which  soon  dries  on 


358  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

the  surface,  forming  crusts,  whicli  are  liable  to  be  succeeded 
by  ulceration.  The  hair  falls  off,  or  a  few  hairs  persist  and 
project  from  the  crusts.  In  chronic  cases  there  is  but  little 
irritation,  but  the  skin  is  thickened,  devoid  of  sensibility, 
dry,  harsh,  and  corrugated.  "  Thus,  it  will  be  observed, 
no  special  symptoms  indicate  mange  j  it  passes  through 
several  stages — papular,  vesicular,  &c.  Diagnosis  must  de- 
pend, in  the  first  place,  upon  detection  of  the  parasites;  also, 
secondly,  upon  accurate  tracing  to  an  origin  by  contagion. 
The  latter  must  be,  for  we  cannot  allow  that  animals  so 
high  in  the  scale  as  Acari  can  appear  spontaneously.  The 
spontaneous  origination  of  the  disorder  was  once  uni- 
versally allowed,  but  this  depended  upon  confusion  of 
mange  with  some  of  the  simple  non-parasitic  diseases 
already  described,  or  hon-recognitiori  of  the  presence  of 
parasites.  This  disease,  in  regularity  of  eruption,  phases, 
persistency,  and  contagiousness,  resembles  some  of  the 
eruptive  disorders  of  the  system.  Analogy  leads  us  to 
anticipate  that  the  latter  will,  with  improved  means  of  in- 
vestigation, be  traced  to  parasitic  forms  of  some  kind  or 
other.  This  lesson  learned  from  mange  is  a  remarkable  one. 
When  the  disease  is  unchecked  it  exhibits  urgency  pro- 
portioned to  the  seasons  or  the  surrounding  temperature. 
Thus,  it  seems  to  be  dormant  in  the  winter,  but  in  warm 
weather  and  places  is  almost  intolerable.  The  disease  is 
not  truly  transmissible  to  the  attendants  and  to  animals 
of  other  species,  for  the  parasites  cause  inconvenience  for 
a  time  but  do  not  propagate  in  their  new  abode.  The 
Acari  can  be  detected  on  the  hairs  and  surface  of  the 
epidermis,  and  can  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye  as  minute 
white  points  moving  about  somewhat  rapidly  when  the 
patient  stands  in  the  full  glare  of  the  sun.  Gerlach,  who 
is  one  of  the  leading  authorities  on  this  subject,  suggests 
for  detection  of  Dermatodectes  the  removal  of  some  of  the 
scales  from  the  surface  and  placing  them  on  the  human 
arm,  with  the  under  part  uppermost,  for  an  hour  or  more. 
The  Acari  pass  to  the  arm  and  there  cause  eruption,  and 
when  the  vesicles  form  they  may  be  punctured  with  a  needle 
and  the  parasite  obtained.      Subsequently  the  arm  should 


THE    SKIN.  359 

be  rubbed  with  oil  of  turpentine  or  some  oatmeal,  as  a 
precaution  against  any  increase  of  the  parasites ;  though 
this  is  hardly  necessary^  it  is  as  well  not  to  reject  the 
precaution.  Acariasis  is  not  frequent  in  the  ox,  but  is 
most  prevalent  in  badly  kept  dirty  herds,  and  is  generally 
associated  with  debility,  which  is  traceable  to  the  irritation 
by  the  parasite  being  a  constant  source  of  worry.  The 
Acarus  is  the  sole  cause,  and  we  cannot  generate  it  by 
any  combination  of  ordinary  causes.  Nevertheless,  it  may 
be  that  the  skin  of  the  weak  animal  forms  a  more  con- 
genial nidus  for  the  acarus  than  that  of  an  animal  in 
good  health,  and  thus  weakness  becomes  a  predisposing 
cause. 

In  the  treatment  of  mange  our  efforts  must  be  directed 
to  the  destruction  of  the  parasites.  Also,  it  is  necessary  to 
remember  that  after  this  has  been  accomplished  the  ova  may 
remain  intact  and  undergo  development  in  due  course. 
Two  conditions  lead  to  obstinacy  of  this  disease  (not  so 
marked  in  the  ox  as  in  some  other  animals) — the  concealed 
state  of  the  parasites  and  the  powers  of  resistance  of  the 
ova.  We  must  break  down  and  remove  the  scales,  and 
generally  must  repeat  our  dressings  at  intervals,  to  de- 
stroy the  young  Acari  as  they  appear  from  the  ova.  The 
removal  of  the  epidermic  debris  may  be  best  accomplished 
by  friction  with  a  weak  alkaline  solution,  as  ordinary  soft 
soap  and  water.  Subsequently,  the  solution  of  liver  of 
sulphur,  tar,  and  turpentine  liniment,  arsenical  wash, 
solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury,  or  other  anti-parasitics, 
may  be  applied  with  care ;  stavesacre  or  tobacco  infusion 
are  also  used  for  this  purpose,  and  many  prefer  sulphur 
ointment,  or  even  simple  reagents,  which  prevent  access  of 
air  to  the  Acari  and  thus  suffocate  them.  When  making 
use  of  poisonous  applications  we  must  remember  that 
they  are  liable  to  become  absorbed  or  to  be  ingested, 
from  animals  licking  themselves  or  one  another.  Another 
practical  inference  is  to  frequently  change  the  dressing  in 
any  particular  case,  for  the  Acari  seem  to  become  tolerant 
of  some  of  the  agents,  which  do  not  cause  their  death, 
but   simply   their   departure.     The   desirability  of   adop- 


360  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

tion  of  constitutional  treatment  is  debated,  but  tbe 
value  of  tonics,  especially  arsenic,  cannot  be  questioned. 
In  this  disease  isolation  must  be  enforced,  all  clotting 
and  appliances  from  the  affected  animal  either  destroyed 
or  thoroughly  purified. 

Symhiotes  hovis  infests  the  region  of  the  tail,  is  rare, 
and  must  be  treated  like  Dermatodectes. 

Phthieiasis — "  Lousiness '' — is  very  common  in  cattle, 
especially  in  marked  cases  of  debility,  whether  due  to 
disease  or  to  want  of  food  and  shelter  (as  in  animals  half- 
starved  in  a  straw  yard) ;  the  lice  abound,  and  cause 
pruritus,  and  materially  retard  growth  and  development 
of  the  stock.  They  prove  troublesome  to  the  auscultator 
who  has  not  remarked  their  presence.  Several  different 
forms  are  described,  as  Hamatopinus  vituli  (which 
specially  affects  the  calf),  and  Harrii  eurysternus,  ani  et 
vulva,  found  on  the  cow,  the  former  on  the  shoulders, 
the  latter  in  the  positions  which  its  name  indicates. 
Also,  there  is  a  form  of  Trichodectes  present  in  some 
cases.  For  the  removal  of  these  pests  dressings  with 
tobacco  water  and  stavesacre  infusion  are  recommended. 
These  require  to  be  several  times  repeated,  well  rubbed  in, 
and  the  animal  should  be  subsequently  thoroughly  washed. 
Measures  should  be  taken  to  prevent  their  passage  to  man 
or  other  animals. 

CEsTEiASis  {''  Warhles'^), — CEstrus  hovis,  the  gad-fly  of 
the  ox,  assumes  its  imago  or  perfect  form  at  about  the  end 
of  summer ;  it  then  attacks  cattle,  puncturing  their  skin 
by  means  of  an  ovipositor,  and  placing  in  the  subcutaneous 
tissue  a  drop  of  acrid  fluid  with  an  ovum.  There  results 
an  abscess  of  small  size  with  a  larva  situated  in  it.  A 
small  opening  extends  from  the  surface  to  the  abscess 
cavity;  against  this  the  respiratory  orifice  of  the  grub  is 
placed,  and  he  feeds  upon  the  pus  of  the  abscess.  At 
length  the  abscess  bursts  (according  to  Youatt,  always 
between  the  hours  of  six  and  eight  in  the  morning),  and 
the  larva  falls  to  the  ground  and  becomes  a  chrysalis,  if 
it  escapes  its  numerous  enemies,  notably  birds,  who  con- 
sider it  a  sweet   morsel.      This  occurs  in  about  June  or 


THE    SKIN.  361 

July  ;  at  tlie  end  of  six  weeks,  under  favorable  conditions, 
the  full-blown  dipterous  insect  escapes  from  its  shell, 
copulates,  and  the  females  deposit  their  eggs  and  then 
die.  The  beast  is  much  afraid  of  the  fly,  and  rushes 
towards  water  in  a  high  state  of  excitement,  with  tail 
erected  and  quivering.  The  pain  results  from  the  acrid 
substance  inserted  with  the  egg.  Mr.  D.  M.  Storrar  re- 
lates a  case  in  which  he  attributed  paralysis  to  a  number 
of  these  warbles  in  their  usual  position  on  the  loins  on 
each  side  of  the  spine.  Sometimes  they  are  very  numerous 
and  give  rise  to  fever,  but  more  frequently  do  no  harm, 
except  to  the  hides.  Young  animals  and  those  in  an 
exuberant  state  of  good  health  are  generally  chosen  by 
the  fly,  for  in  them  the  skin  is  soft  and  penetrable.  The 
CEstrus  must  be  removed  from  the  warble,  which  is 
nature^s  method  of  cure,  and  may  be  easily  brought 
about  by  pressure ;  the  results  of  its  presence  will  then 
be  gradually  obliterated.  Care  should  be  taken  to  destroy 
the  CEstrus  (^^ maggot^'  or  "bob^^).  Water  is  a  very 
effectual  protective  means,  and  cattle,  when  attacked,  will 
charge  into  it  with  great  force. 

The  Tsetze  fly,  described  by  Livingstone,  is  more  formi- 
dable. It  is  seen  in  South  and  East  Africa,  and  is  capable 
of  poisoning  cattle  by  its  sting.  Its  technical  name  is 
Glossina  morsitans.  Turpentine  ointment  is  said  to  be 
useful  when  applied  for  its  bites.  Maggots  of  the  ordi- 
nary fly  are  sometimes  to  be  seen  on  neglected  wounds 
of  cattle.  Some  forms  of  ticks  (Ixodides)  are  sometimes 
seen  on  cattle. 

Vegetable  Parasitic  Diseases  of  the  sTcin  of  Cattle  : 
Tinea — "  Ringworm,'' 

Tinea  favosa  is  due  to  the  fungus  Achorion  Schonleiniij 
which  originates  from  a  spore  which  has  gained  entry 
into  a  hair-follicle.  It  perforates  the  epidermic  struc- 
tures so  that  its  spores  may  be  found  in  the  hairs  as 
well  as  in  the  main  portion  of  the  cuticle ;  from  the 
opening  of  the  hair-follicle  the  fungus  projects  and  forms 
a  yellowish  cup-like  crust,  with  a  hair  projecting  from  its 


362  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

centre.  A  number  of  these  aggregated  produce  a  "honey- 
comb-like mass,  whence  the  disease  is  known  as  ^^  Honey- 
comh  Ringworm."  It  does  not  originate  in  the  ox,  but 
is  transmissible  to  this  animal  with  some  facility.  Mice 
and  rats  suffer  from  it,  especially  the  former,  for  they 
become  much  debilitated  and  their  heads  covered  with 
crust,  in  the  form  of  an  immense  tumour,  which  causes 
absorption  of  the  facial  bones  by  pressure.  Pulverising 
of  the  crust  disseminates  the  spores,  whence  the  disorder 
is  infectious,  but  certain  conditions  pf  the  skin,  as  seen  in 
young  or  debilitated  aliimals,  seem  especially  favorable  to 
its  growth. 

Treatment. — Remove  the  crusts  and  destroy  them  ;  thus, 
an  ulcer  caused  by  absorption  of  the  superficial  layer  of 
the  dermis  will  be  exposed.  Eemove  all  affected  hairs 
and  dress  with  nitrate-of-mercury  ointment,  nitrate  of 
silver,  vinegar  of  cantharides,  or,  preferably,  dilute  sul- 
phurous acid.  Many  kinds  of  animals  suffer  from  this 
disease,  and  true  f^vus  cruets  have  been  grown  from 
spores  on  the  acid  cut  surface  of  an  apple. 

Tinea  tonsurans  is  caused  by  another  and  more  simple 
iungus—Trico^phyton  tonsurans.  Its  constituents  are 
smaller  than  those  of  Favus,  and  it  does  not  project  as 
cups  on  the  surface,  simply  invading  the  epidermal  struc- 
tures and  constituting  a  fine  powder  on  the  epidermis. 
It  affects  young  animals,  especially  when  exposed  to 
damp,  and  with  dirty  skins,  and  is  readily  transmissible 
from  ox  to  ox,  or  to  man  and  other  animals.  It  attains 
a  greater  luxuriance  of  growth  in  the  ox  than  in  man, 
and  the  disease,  when  first  received  by  man  from  the  ox. 


L.-TTn^wrse:! 


Fig.  69. — Hair,  with  the  spores  of  Trichophyton  tonsurans.     (After   Harley 

and  Brown.) 

is  so  luxuriant   that  it  has  been  described  as  specifically 
distinct. 


THE    FOOT.  363 

Symptoms. — Circular  patches  in  various  parts  of  the 
body,  characterised  by  the  absence  of  the  hair,  the  pre- 
sence of  vesicae  near  the  outer  margin,  and  a  scurfy 
condition  of  the  central  parts ;  here  and  there  in  the  ring 
may  be  seen  a  dry  looking  hair,  of  a  greyish  colour, 
somewhat  twisted  at  the  root,  or  the  stump  of  a  hair 
which  has  broken  off.  Megnin  considers  the  true  Tinea  of 
the  ox  distinct  from  that  of  the  horse,  and  terms  it 
T.  decalvans  or  T.  dejpilens.  This  he  finds  to  be  generally 
nearly  three  times  the  size  of  T.  tonsurans,  to  give  rise 
to  more  formidable  symptoms  when  communicated  to  the 
horse  by  inoculation,  and  to  induce  a  different  condition 
of  the  affected  hairs.  In  calves,  the  disease  affects  the 
eyes,  ears,  neck,  withers,  and  limbs.  These  cases  must 
be  treated  with  the  same  applications  as  suggested  for 
T.  favosa. 

Section  2. — ;Diseases  op  the 

The  foot  of  the  ox,  in  a  zoological  sei 
the  structures  from  the  knee  and  hock  (inclii^ 
wards  in  the  fore  and  hind  limbs.  Custom  sanctiol 
application  of  the  term  foot  to  the  inferior  part  of  each  ex- 
tremity from  the  fetlock-joint  downwards.  From  a 
pathological  point  of  view  it  matters  little  which  view 
we  adopt.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  the  knee  of  the  ox 
is  remarkable  for  the  peculiar  manner  in  which  it  is 
bent  inwards  in  consequence  of  the  obliquity  upwards 
and  outwards  of  the  inferior  articulatory  surface  of  the 
radius,  whence  the  proverbial  term  "  Calf -kneed.''  That 
the  ulna  meets  the  carpal  bones,  os  pisiforme  (Trapezium) 
is  less  developed  than  in  the  horse,  that  the  trapezoid 
and  magnum  are  fused  into  a  single  bone,  and  no  true  tra- 
pezium is  present.  The  metacarpus  consists  of  a  rudi- 
mentary splint  bone  on  the  outer  side,  and  of  two  fully 
developed  metacarpals  blended  together  along  the  central 
line,  separating  inferiorly,  each  division  bearing  three 
pastern  bones  and  a  navicular,  resembling  moieties  of  the 
corresponding    bones    in    the    horse.      The    two    diverg- 


364  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

ing  digits  are  connected  together  by  certain  interdigital 
ligaments,  and  each  bears  a  hoof  resembling  half  the  hoof 
of  the  horse.  Finally,  behind  the  fetlocks  are  two  rudi- 
mentary claws,  each  with  a  contained  bone,  the  os  pedis 
of  a  rudimentary  digit.  Thus,  to  sum  up,  the  foot  of  the 
ox  consists  of  two  functional  digits  united  together 
superiorly,  which  together  represent  the  compound  func- 
tional digit  of  the  horse,  and  two  very  rudimentary  digits, 
of  which  the  outer  has  a  splint  bone,  a  hoof,  and  a  pedal 
bone,  but  the  inner  has  no  splint  bone.  In  the  hind 
limb  the  arrangement  of  the  bones  is  much  the  same,  but 
there  are  no  distinct  splint  bones,  and  the  hock  consists  of 
a  well- developed  astragalus,  which  forms  a  well-marked 
hinge-joint  below,  with  a  bone  compounded  of  the  large 
cuneiform  and  the  cuboid,  and  is  freely  movable  on  os 
calcis,  which  has  a  long,  rather  slight  process.  The 
cuneiforme  medium  is  only  of  moderate  size,  and  the 
cuneiforme  parvum  is  very  small.  The  joint  between  the 
upper  and  lower  row  of  tarsal  bones  renders  the  hock 
capable  of  a  great  degree  of  flexion.  Diseases  of  the 
foot  in  the  ox  are  very  rare,  especially  in  this  country, 
for — 1st,  its  conformation  is  such  as  to  render  it  less 
liable  to  injury,  as  being  more  simple  than  that  of  the 
horse ;  2nd,  the  ox  is  seldom  used  for  draught  purposes, 
and  never  for  conveying  heavy  weights  for  great  dis- 
tances along  hard  roads,  nor  for  excessively  rapid  progres- 
sion on  the  racecourse ;  3rd,  but  few  cattle  are  shod. 

Foul,  Loo,  Low. — This  term  is  applied,  somewhat  indefi- 
nitely, to  the  formation  of  abscess  in  the  foot  and  resulting 
disorganisation  of  structure.  This  may  be  attributed  either 
to  common  causes  or  specific  influences.  The  latter  are 
scrofulous  and  perhaps  rheumatic  conditions.  Scrofulous 
arthritis  not  unfrequently  affects  the  bones  and  joints  of 
the  foot,  causing  such  disease  of  them  as  of  other  parts 
of  the  skeleton.  This  disease  may  be  caused  by  the 
presence  of  foreign  bodies  fixed  between  the  claws,  giving 
rise  to  inflammation,  by  overgrowth  of  the  hoof-horn  on 
the  inner  side,  by  various  kinds  of  injuries,  and,  among 
others,  certain   sprains  of    the   pastern,  pedal  joints,  &c. 


THE    FOOT.  365 

It  most  frequently  affects  tlie  hind  feet,  and  is  most 
prevalent  on  low  marshy  lands,  such  as  promote  over- 
growth and  excessive  malformation  of  the  hoof.  It  is  in 
many  respects  similar  to  the  non-contagious  form  of  foot- 
rot  of  sheep,  and  somewhat  resembles  quittor  of  the  horse. 
The  extreme  cases  of  non-specific  foot-rot  and  foul  which  we 
see  occasionally  are  due  to  neglect,  whereby  inflammation 
extends  to  the  joints  of  the  foot  and  leads  to  acute  arthritic 
disorder.  Thus,  the  pathological  conditions  of  this  disease 
are,  at  first,  the  existence  of  inflammation  in  the  interdigital 
substance,  which  may  be  partially  removed  by  sloughmg, 
then  the  presence  of  pus  beneath  the  hoof-horn,  boring 
and  forming  simple  sinuses ;  also  later,  arthritis  and  ostitis, 
leading  to  increased  suppuration  and  the  formation  of 
sinuses,  which  extend  outwards  and  burst  on  the  surface. 
The  patient  is  very  lame,  and  the  digits  are  separated 
from  one  another  in  a  remarkable  manner.  Considerable 
sympathetic  fever  is  generally  present  in  such  advanced 
cases,  and  the  animal  materially  loses  condition,  suc- 
cumbing to  the  pain  of  the  disorder  in  a  very  rapid 
manner.  This  entails  considerable  loss  upon  the  owner, 
and  necessitates  energetic  treatment,  which  must  consist 
of  removal  of  the  patient  to  a  thoroughly  clean  quiet 
place,  careful  washing  of  the  foot,  removal  of  any  ragged 
horn  and  overgrowth,  also  of  any  part  of  the  hoof  which 
is  underrun  by  the  pus,  poulticing  for  removal  of  the 
pain  and  to  arouse  a  healthy  process,  also  a  cathartic  dose. 
Subsequently,  carbolic  dressings,  or  mild  astringents  may 
be  applied,  but  such  powerful  caustic  agents  as  were 
once  used  are  not  required.  Neither  is  the  prolonged 
interdigital  friction,  which  was  considered  beneficial,  and 
was  usually  applied  by  means  of  a  tar  rope.  The  diseased 
foot  will  require  to  be  dressed  and  to  be  protected  by 
means  of  a  bandage.  The  mode  of  elevation  of  the  foot 
usually  adopted  has  been  already  mentioned  (see  page  71). 
Bleeding  from  the  coronet,  whereby  much  blood  may 
be  removed,  is  recommended  by  Youatt  and  others,  but  its 
effects  are  not  likely  to  produce  much  benefit  in  this  sub- 
acute disorder,  and  it  is  preferable  not  to  bleed  too  near 


866  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

inflamed  parts.      In  long-standing  cases,  with  considerable 
disorganisation  of  bones  and  joints,   amputation   may  be 


Fig.  70.— Method  of  applying  dressings  between  hoofs.     (Armatage.) 

performed,  for  the  patient  will  thrive  better  after  removal 
of  the  diseased  organ,  and  the  case  cannot  otherwise  be 
cured.  Either  one  digit  may  be  removed  at  the  pas- 
tern, or  both  may  be  simultaneously  amputated  at  the 
fetlock,  or  through  the  metacarpal  region. 

The  operation  is  performed  by  casting  the  animal  and 
freeing  the  diseased  limb.  A  tourniquet,  consisting  of  a 
band  passing  round  the  centre  of  the  metacarpal  region, 
with  pads  on  the  inner  side,  tightened  by  passage  of  a 
bar  through  it  and  twisting,  is  used  to  restrain  haemor- 
rhage. This  must  be  brought  into  use  just  before  the 
operation  is  commenced.  Either  disarticulation  or  ampu- 
tation through  the  bone  is  then  performed  with  the  fol- 
lowing precautions  :  to  leave  a  good  flap  or  flaps  of  skin 
to  cover  the  exposed  surface,  and  to  ligature  all  the  larger 
arteries.  Then  the  wound  is  closed  by  approximation  of 
the  flaps,  and  maintained  by  sutures,  the  ends  of  the  arterial 
ligatures  being  allowed  to  hang  free.  The  stump  must  be 
protected  with  tow  and  a  bandage.  The  operation  may  pre- 
ferably be  performed  with  antiseptic  precautions.  The 
animal  will  favour  the  limb  thus  operated  upon,  and  will 
be  able  to  make  shift  with  the  others,  and  may  be  pro- 
vided with  such  a  wooden  leg  as  described  by  Mr.  Litt, 
of  Shrewsbury,  in  '  Veterinary  Journal,'  vol.  iv,  p.  241 . 
This  operation  has  become  thoroughly  established  in  vete- 
rinary practice. 

With  regard  to  the  diagnosis  of  this  disease,  it  is  said  to 
be  sometimes  confounded  with  foot-and-mouth  disease. 
The  latter,  when  neglected,  degenerates  into  "  foul  ^'  of  an 


THE    FOOT.  367 

aggravated  character ;  it  seems  probable  that  at  this  stage 
all  virulence  is  lost.  The  treatment  of  "  foul "  in  scro- 
fulous animals  is,  of  course,  only  palliative. 

Laminitis,  "  Founder,'' — Inflammation  of  the  sensitive 
structure  of  the  foot  is  not  frequent  in  cattle,  but  some- 
times results,  especially  in  very  heavy  and  highly-fed 
animals,  from  over-driving.  It  is  also  somewhat  often 
seen  in  working  oxen.  The  simplicity  of  the  foot  of  the 
ox  renders  this  a  comparatively  unimportant  affection. 
It  may  cause  removal  of  the  hoofs,  but  they  will  grow  again. 
The  patient  is  better  able  to  remain  recumbent  and  to  remove 
the  weight  from  an  affected  digit  than  is  the  horse.  This 
disease  may  be  treated  by  a  cathartic  dose,  rest,  cold-water 
applications,  and,  if  necessary,  sedatives. 

Loss  of  a  Hoof  may  arise  from  other  causes  than  foul 
and  laminitis,  as  when  the  foot  becomes  caught  by  the 
landing  stage  during  unshipping,  and  under  certain  other 
emergencies  of  travel.  If  time  be  allowed  a  fairly  perfect 
new  hoof  will  be  produced,  until  when  the  animal  cleverly 
utilises  the  companion  claw  for  purposes  of  progression. 

SoEE  Feet  result  from  excessive  wear  of  the  hoof  from 
travelling  along  hard  roads.  These  must  be  dressed  with 
tar  or  put  in  a  poultice,  and  the  animals  rested.  On  this 
matter  Youatt  says  :  "  There  is  not  a  farmer  that  has  not 
had  cows  in  his  dairy  that  have  lost  for  a  time  full  half 
of  their  milk  on  account  of  the  pain  which  tender  and  dis- 
eased feet  have  occasioned ;  the  grazier  sometimes  loses 
the  advantage  of  three  or  four  months^  feeding  from  the 
same  cause,  and  in  London  dairies  tender  feet  are  often  a 
most  serious  ailment,  and  compel  the  milkman  to  part 
with  some  of  his  best  cows,  and  that  in  a  very  indifferent 
condition.'^ 

This  liability  to  sore  feet  necessitates  the  shoeing  of 
working  oxen,  which  consists  in  affixing  thin  plates  of 
iron  to  the  soles  of  the  hoofs  by  three  nails  to  each. 
These  nails  are  small,  and  require  considerable  care  in 
driving,  on  account  of  the  thinness  of  the  hoofs.  The 
animal  is  liable  to  prove  restless  while  being  shod,  and 
thus  pricks  may  occur. 


368  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY, 

OvEROROWTH  OP  HoRN,  though  not  a  disease,  occasionally 
requires  attention  from  the  veterinarian,  since  it  may  give 
rise  to  foul  and  other  diseases.  It  is  seen  in  animals  con- 
stantly housed,  and  so  deprived  of  the  attrition  which 
naturally  maintains  the  proper  length  of  the  hoof,  and  the 
remedy  consists  in  regulated  application  of  the  rasp  and 
drawing-knife. 

Pricks  and  other  Penetrating  Wounds  op  the  Foot 
must  be  treated  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  free  exit  to 
all  discharges,  by  removal  of  horn,  so  as  to  form  a  depend- 
ing orifice ;  and  carbolic  dressings ;  however,  cases  of  this 
kind  are  not  so  important  in  the  ox  as  in  the  horse,  for 
the  pus  readily  bores  its  way  to  the  coronet,  and  gains 
exit  in  consequence  of  the  comparatively  loose  union  of 
the  laminated  surfaces,  whereas  in  the  horse  there  is  a 
tendency  to  form  secondary  sinuses.  Youatt  lays  stress 
on  this  difference. 

Monstrous  condition  op  the  Foot. — The  development 
of  extra  digits  in  the  ox  is  of  very  rare  occurrence,  but 
we  have  before  us  an  instance  in  which  the  inner  rudi- 
mentary digit  was  fully  developed,  and  bore  a  hoof  about 
three  quarters  as  large  as  those  of  the  two  functional 
digits.  A  case  was  mentioned  before  the  Societe 
Centrale  de  Medecine  Yeterinaire  of  an  ox  with  a  cloven 
condition  of  one  hind  limb,  extending  up  to  the  tarsus.^ 

Interdigital  Fibromata  are  sometimes  seen ;  as  they 
increase  in  size  they  cause  lameness,  tension  of  the  inter- 
digital ligament,  and  may  ultimately  lead  to  foul.  They 
should  be  removed  with  the  knife. 

Ulceration  op  the  Heel,  of  a  sluggish  character,  either 
associated  with  foul  or  as  a  distinct  affection,  sometimes 
proves  obstinate  to  treatment.  It  develops  luxuriant 
papillae,  assuming  a  fungoid  character,  or  may  form  an 
irregular,  hard,  callous  mass.  In  either  case  cauterisa- 
tion is  called  for.  This  condition  results  from  long-con- 
tinued exposure  to  cold  and  dirt.     Youatt  compares  it  to 

^  We  have  just  received  the  hind  limb  of  a  calf  with  a  well- developed  digit, 
consisting  of  a  metatarsal,  the  full  number  of  phalanges,  and  a  fairly 
formed  hoof,  curling  upwards  from  the  inner  side  of  the  hock. 


THE    FOOT,  EYE,  AND    EAR.  369 

grease  in  the  horse,  but  is   not  very  successful  in  esta- 
blishing the  comparison. 


Section  3. — Diseases  op  the  Ear. 

The  ear  of  the  ox  presents  no  special  anatomical  or 
physiological  features  of  import  to  us  at  present,  nor  is 
it  frequently  involved  in  diseased  action.  The  external 
ear  may  be  lacerated,  and  must  then  be  treated  on  con- 
servative principles.  The  skin  investing  it  is  also  liable 
to  be  involved  in  skin  diseases  ;  and  Youatt  mentions 
the  occurrence  of  fungous  granulations  springing  up  within 
the  ear. 

Otitis  is  a  formidable  affection,  not  frequently  recog- 
nised, but  liable  to  be  confounded  with  disease  of  the 
brain,  because  of  the  violence  exerted  by  the  animal, 
since  this  is  a  very  painful  disease.  We  have  before  us 
a  case  in  which  extensive  abscess  had  formed  in  the  bone, 
but  the  true  nature  of  the  disease  was  discovered  only 
after  death.  The  principal  symptoms,  besides  those  of 
fever,  are  carrying  the  head  to  one  side  and  heat  and  red- 
ness of  the  external  parts.  If  this  state  is  diagnosed 
nothing  can  be  done  more  than  powerful  stimulation 
around  the  root  of  the  ear,  and  the  administration  of 
febrifuges  and  cathartics. 


Section  4. — Diseases  op  the  Eye  and  its  Appendages. 

8uh-section  1. — Abnormalities  of  the  Ocular  Appendages. 

The  orbit  of  the  ox  has  its  external  opening  laterally 
placed,  giving  a  considerable  backward  range  of  sight — a 
feature  observable  in  all  ruminants.  This  margin  is  formed 
only  of  three  bones,  the  squamous  temporal  being  excluded 
by  the  peculiar  bifurcation  of  the  posterior  portion  of  the 
malar.  In  other  respects  the  orbit  essentially  resembles 
that  of  the  horse,  and  the  accessory  organs  of  vision  are 

24 


370  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

very  similar,  except  that  the  retractor  muscle  is  even  more 
powerful,  and  the  lachrymal  and  Meibomian  glands  are 
very  well  developed,  as  also  is  the  Harderian  gland,  which 
is  situated  inside  the  cartilago-nictitans,  and  secretes  a  lu- 
bricating fluid.  The  ductus  ad  nasum  does  not  extend  so 
far  down  as  the  anterior  naris.  We  have  already  noted  the 
frequent  presence  of  bony  tumours  on  the  margin  of  the  orbit. 
Fractures  of  this  part  are  not  rare  as  a  result  of  various 
kinds  of  injuries  ;  either  a  small  portion  of  bone  is  chipped 
off  the  edge,  or  the  orbital  frontal  process  may  be  entirely 
fractured.  Loose  portions  of  bone  must  be  removed 
artificially,  or  will  slough  out,  and  the  attachments  of  the 
eyelid  may  be  interfered  with,  or  depression  of  the  frag- 
ments may  exert  pressure  on  the  contents  of  the  orbit. 
A  highly  vascular  encephaloid  or  medullary  sarcomatous 
growth  sometimes  commences  at  the  back  of  the  orbit,  and 
grows  rapidly,  pressing  on  the  optic  nerve,  and  forcing 
the  eyeball  to  one  side.  It  appears  at  the  surface  as  a 
highly  vascular  mass,  and  is  termed  Fungus  H^matodes. 
It  produces  complete  loss  of  sight,  and  must  be  treated  by 
extirpation  of  the  contents  of  the  orbit,  and  subsequent 
application  of  the  actual  cautery,  to  restrain  haemorrhage 
and  destroy  the  last  vestiges  of  the  cancerous  mass.  The 
patient  should  then  be  fattened  for  slaughter.  This  is 
perhaps  the  most  frequent  cancerous  growth  in  the  ox. 

Laceeations  of  the  Eyelids  must  be  treated  on  the 
principle  of  not  removing  any  part  which  can  possibly  be 
saved.  Youatt  tells  us  that  '*  the  eyelids  are  more  subject 
to  disease  in  the  ox  than  in  any  other  domestic  animal," 
and  mentions  Spontaneous  Emphysema  of  the  organs  to  be 
cured  by  puncture ;  and  also  (Edema,  which  is  a  sign  of 
general  debility,  or  may  be  a  sign  of  the  existence  of  some 
irritant  in  the  eye.  Sometimes  cases  of  this  kind  lead  to 
chronic  thickening. 

Warty  Growths  are  sometimes  seen  on  the  eyelids,  and 
must  be  snipped  off,  and  their  roots  touched  with  caustic. 
Finally,  the  largely  developed  Meibomian  glands  may 
become  inflamed  or  their  ducts  blocked  up,  and  a  small 
abscess  results.     When  this  bursts  or  is  opened  the  parts 


THE    EYE.  371 

regain  their  normal  condition.  We  are  not  aware  that 
inversion  and  eversion  of  the  eyelids  have  ever  been  seen 
in  the  ox.  We  have  found  records  of  a  few  cases  of 
Ptosis,  dropping  of  the  upper  eyelid,  but  have  no  evi- 
dence as  to  the  occurrence  of  disease  in  the  lachrymal 
apparatus. 

TUMOUES  OF  THE  CaRUNCULA  LACHRYMALIS  AND  CaRTILAGO- 

NiCTiTANS  sometimes  attain  a  considerable  size.  They 
result  from  chronic  irritation  or  conjunctivitis,  and  must 
be  removed  by  means  of  the  scissors,  the  animal  having 
been  cast  and  the  cartilage  fixed.  The  latter  must  be  as 
little  injured  as  possible  in  the  operation.  Sometimes 
caustic  applications  will  suffice  to  destroy  these  tumours, 
but  generally  it  is  found  necessary  to  operate. 

Suh-secHon  2. — Diseases  of  the  Eyeball. 

The  eyeball  is  somewhat  flatter  in  the  ox  than  in  the 
horse,  the  cornea  more  convex,  and  the  tapetum  lucidum 
has  a  golden-green  colour,  bluish  near  the  margin,  and  a 
fibrous  structure. 

Conjunctivitis — Simjple  Ophthalmia — results  from  in- 
juries, and  especially  from  the  entry  of  foreign  matters 
into  the  eye.  It  is  denoted  by  profuse  lachrymation,  the 
tears  trickling  down  the  cheek,  thickening  of  the  eyelids, 
intolerance  of  light,  redness  of  the  conjunctiva,  and 
generally  some  opacity  of  the  cornea  through  extension 
of  irritation,  due  to  general  causes,  as  exposure  to  cold,  or 
to  acrid  vapours  ;  both  eyes  may  be  thus  affected  (but  this 
seems  to  be  very  rare).  An  examination  must  be  made  for 
the  detection  of  foreign  bodies,  the  lids  being  separated  by 
the  finger  and  thumb,  and  each  everted  in  turn.  The 
rapid  movement  of  the  haw  over  the  eye  renders  this  ex- 
amination a  little  more  complicated  than  it  otherwise  would 
be.  The  cause  having  been  removed  the  irritation  may  be 
overcome  by  fomentations  and  dressings  with  solution  of  the 
subacetate  of  lead,  and  the  eye  or  eyes  should  be  protected 
from  the  light.  This  disease  is  generally  complicated  with 
keratitis  or  corneitis,  in  which  the  cdlls  which  are  collected 


372  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

together  to  form  the  cornea  proliferate  freely  and  cause 
opacity. 

Opacity  op  the  Cornea  also  depends  upon  nutritive 
conditions,  and  sometimes  upon  pressure,  due  to  swelling 
of  the  contents  of  the  eyeball.  Under  these  circumstances 
it  is  temporary,  and  disappears  with  its  cause,  but  when 
it  results  from  blows  or  other  injuries,  and  sometimes  after 
ophthalmia,  it  may  be  permanent.  When  a  slight  bluish 
imperfect  opacity  it  is  termed  nebula,  if  more  circum- 
scribed, perfect,  and  with  well-defined  outlines,  it  is  termed 
albugo.  These  conditions  are  incurable ;  they  may  become 
less  marked  with  time,  and  the  process  of  diminution  in 
size  may  be  accelerated  by  the  application  of  caustic 
agents,  such  as  nitrate  of  silver.  Cartwright  describes  it 
in  some  cases,  as  due  to  plethora  and  the  pendent  position 
of  the  head  (^  Edinburgh  Veterinary  Review,'  vol.  v, 
p.  22)  ;  but  it  probably  is  more  frequently  dependent  on 
defective  nutrition. 

Staphyloma  is  either  a  tumour  on  the  cornea  or  pro- 
trusion of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  aqueous  chamber 
with  its  contents  through  an  ulceration  of  the  cornea. 
Such  ulcerations   result  from  debility,  especially  that   due 


Fig.  71. — Staphyloma.     (Arraatage.) 

to  defective  assimilation  of  tissue  formers,  or  occasionally, 
perhaps,  from  ophthalmic  corneitis.  The  projection  is 
opaque  and  generally  irregular  on  the  surface,'  and  in  the 
ulcerative  form  there  is  a  tendency  to  evacuation  of  the 
contents  of  the  aqueous  chamber.  Ulcerations  of  the 
cornea  and  tumours  on  it  may  be  touched  with  nitrate  of 


THE    EYE.  373 

silver.  Special  attention  must  be  directed  to  improve- 
ment of  the  condition  of  the  animal.  Repair  may  be 
established,  even  after  the  aqueous  humour  has  escaped. 

Go7ifjenital  hairy  tumours  have  been  seen  on  the  sclerotic. 
The  most  recent  case  on  record  is  that  in  the  '  Veterinary 
Journal/  vol.  iv,  p.  169.  Development  shows  us  that 
the  conjunctiva  is  but  a  modified  portion  of  the  external 
investment  of  the  body ;  this  is  a  teratological  proof  of 
the  same  fact. 

Worm  in  the  Eye  is  sometimes  seen  in  the  ox  (see  '  Veteri- 
narian/ vol.  i,  p.  77).  The  parasite  is  a  Nematode  (either 
Filaria  lachrymalis,  F.  papillosaf  or  8trongylus  armatus), 
and  occupies  the  anterior  chamber,  where  it  excites  irri- 
tation, and  thus  produces  corneitis  and  some  degree  of 
conjunctivitis.  We  have  no  instance  of  this  occurring  in 
this  country,  but  perhaps  it  might  be  seen  more  often  in 
India.  Incision  at  the  supero- external  part  of  the  cornea, 
with  pressure  on  the  eyeball,  causing  the  aqueous  humour 
to  squirt  out,  carrying  the  worm  with  it,  should  be  tried, 
as  in  similar  cases  in  the  horse. 

Lymjphy  deposits  in  the  Aqueous  Ghamhers  result  from 
inflammation  of  the  eye,  especially  the  rheumatic  form, 
and  they  may  cause  adhesion  of  the  iris  to  the  lens 
capsule.  They  are  generally  only  temporary,  and  soon 
disappear.  When  small  and  attached  to  the  anterior  part 
of  the  lens  capsule  they  may  be  mistaken  for  cataract, 
unless  care  be  exercised.  In  the  '  Veterinarian,^  vol.  xxv, 
p.  3,  Mr.  Cartwright  relates  a  case  of  lymphy  deposit, 
which  he  attributed  to  inflammation  of  the  iris.  No 
treatment  is  required — simply  time  for  absorption. 

Specific  or  Peeiodic  Ophthalmia,  also  described  as 
Retinitis,  is  not  so  frequent  in  the  ox  as  in  the  horse.^ 
It  is  probably  rheumatic,  since  it  is  periodical,  and  under- 
goes metastatic  passage  from  one  eye  to  the  other.  It 
especially  effects  the  deeper  structures,  causing  disorgani- 
sation of  the  retina,  a  breaking  up  of  the  hyaloid  mem- 
brane, opacity  of  the  lens,  an  orange  colour  of  the  iris,  and 

1  Many  cattle  pathologists  deny  that  this  disorder  occurs  in  the  ox.     The 
balance  of  opinion  seems  to  favour  the  view  advanced  in  the  text. 


374  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

its  attachment  to  the  capsule  of  the  lens  (both  conditions 
due  to  lymph  extravasation),  a  jagged  condition  of  its  free 
margin,  and  paralysis  of  its  muscular  structure,  deposits 
of  lymph  in  the  aqueous  chamber,  opacity  of  the  cornea 
of  a  temporary  character,  and  constitutional  irritability. 
The  symptoms  are  those  of  common  ophthalmia  of  a  severe 
character,  but  on  examination,  the  deeper  structures  of  the 
eye  will  be  found  to  be  the  parts  principally  involved,  and 
those  which  are  visible  will  be  found  altered  more  or  less, 
as  above  described.  The  attack  is  generally  sudden,  and 
only  one  eye  affected  at  a  time.  This  disease  leads  to  ca- 
taract, atrophy,  and  thorough  disorganisation  of  the  eyeball. 

Treatment. — The  same  as  for  simple  ophthalmia,  and  in 
addition  constitutional  remedies,  such  as  colchicum  and 
iodide  of  potassium.  Is  seldom  amenable  to  treatment. 
Animals  thus  affected,  should  be  prepared  for  the  butcher, 
and  should  not  be  used  for  breeding  purposes,  for  the 
disease  is  certainly  hereditary. 

Cataract. — Opacity  of  the  lens,  or  of  its  capsule,  or  of 
both  these  structures,  may  be  circumscribed  or  diffused, 
in  the  latter  case  it  causes  complete  blindness.  It  is 
caused  by  rheumatic  ophthalmia,  and  sometimes  by  blows. 
In  the  latter  case  it  is  a  fracture  of  the  lens,  and  is 
generally  a  stellate  opacity. 

Treatment  in  the  lower  animals  is  not  likely  to  prove 
beneficial. 

Amaurosis — Paralysis  of  the  Retina — is  denoted  by  per- 
manent dilatation  of  the  pupil  (except  when  the  iris  is 
influenced  by  sympathy  with  the  other  eye)  and  by  a 
greenish  and  transparent  condition  of  the  posterior  part 
of  the  eye.  The  primary  lesion  may  be  in  the  cranium 
as  when  a  tumour  presses  on  the  optic  nerve,  along  the 
extracranial  portion  of  the  nerve  as  injury  or  com- 
pression, or  in  the  retina  as  in  cases  of  depositions  of 
lymph  in  it  as  a  result  of  inflammation.  It  also  some- 
times depends  upon  debility  and  excessive  loss  of  blood. 
It  is  not  frequent  in  the  ox.  When  due  to  compression 
or  structural  change^  nothing  can  be  done  which  will 
be  likely  to  effect  a  cure.      That  form   due  to  debility   is 


THE    EYE.  375 

only  temporary.  When  the  eye  cannot  be  any  longer 
used  as  an  organ  of  vision  the  retina  atrophies.  This 
is  to  be  seen  in  cases  of  cataract.  ('  Veterinarian/  vol.  iii^ 
p.  141.) 


Section  5. — Diseases  op  the  Organ  op  Taste. 

We  have  already  dealt  with  the  abnormalities  of  the 
tongue  (Chap.  TV,  Section  1).  Perversion  of  Gustation  is 
generally  present  in  cases  of  depraved  appetite. 


376  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


CHAPTER   YIII.— DISEASES    OF    THE    NERVOUS 

SYSTEM. 

The  nervous  system  of  the  ox  is  not  very  highly 
developed  as  a  whole,  though,  perhaps,  the  sympathetic 
portion  somewhat  exceeds  the  average.  The  brain  is  more 
rounded  and  tilted  upwards  anteriorly  than  that  of  the 
horse  ;  it  has  not  such  a  numerous  and  complex  state  of 
the  convolutions.  The  spinal  cord,  and  cerebral,  spinal, 
and  sympathetic  nerves  present  no  special  differences  in  the 
two  animals. 

Section  1. — The  Ceeebro-spinal  System. 

The  brain  seems  to  be  especially  affected  by  inflam- 
mation, apoplexy,  and  those  ill-ascertained  conditions 
known  as  epilepsy. 

Phrentis — Inflammation  of  the  Brain — preferably  may  be 
called  Encephalitis,  since  we  cannot  diagnose  inflammation 
of  the  brain  or  Cerebritis,  in  which  simply  the  cere- 
brum is  involved,  from  that  diseased  action  of  an  inflam- 
matory nature  which  involves  both  brain  and  membranes. 
Aitkin,  as  quoted  by  Williams,  gives  the  following 
features  of  distinction  between  cerebral  and  meningeal 
disease.  The  former  is  characterised  by  loss  of  some 
proper  nerve  function  from  the  first,  not  at  all  by  high 
exaggeration  of  function  nor  vascular  excitement,  and 
paralysis,  anaBsthesia,  loss  of  volition,  are  its  distinctives. 
In  the  latter,  loss  of  nerve  force  takes  place  only  some 
time  after  the  attack  commenced ;  it  is  generally  pre- 
ceded by  exaggeration  of  function  and  much  vascular 
excitement    and    local   disturbance.     Also  spasms,  pain, 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  377 

and  delirium^  are  present.  Sometimes  abscess  in  the 
brain  occurs. 

The  disease  usually  described  as  phrenitis  is  primarily 
congestive,  subsequently  inflammatory.  '  It  is  vulgarly 
known  as  ^'  Phrensy,'^  and  is  highly  acute.  The  exag- 
geration of  cerebral  functions  and  of  vascular  excitement 
are  very  marked.  Perhaps  the  shortness  of  the  neck  of 
the  ox  proves  a  predisposing  cause  to  this  and  apoplectic 
conditions  against  which  even  the  complex  Rete  Mirabile 
at  the  base  of  the  brain  is  not  always  an  efficient  preven- 
tive. Encephalitis  is  not  of  rare  occurrence,  and  is  espe- 
cially prevalent  in  hot  countries  and  hot  seasons,  and  more 
particularly  affects  working  oxen^  those  exposed  in  pastures, 
and  plethoric  males. 

It  is  found  that  the  disease  also  is  less  prevalent  now 
than  formerly,  perhaps  due  to  less  frequent  over- driving 
and  greater  care  of  animals.  Fortunately,  too,  bull- 
baiting,  which  would  tend  in  this  direction,  is  under 
the  ban  of  public  opinion.  Sometimes  injury  is  the 
cause. 

The  congestive  stage  is  denoted  by  a  highly  injected 
condition  of  the  conjunctival  membrane,  together  with  a 
condition  of  stupor,  during  which  the  pulse  is  slow, 
respirations  infrequent,  there  is  a  tendency  to  somnolence, 
and  the  patient  is  "  foolish. ^^  Soon  general  febrile  sym- 
ptoms and  the  true  phrenitic  signs  are  developed.  A 
wild  and  staring  condition  of  the  eyes,  bellowing,  and 
charging  at  all  available  objects.  This  is  the  stage  of 
delirium.  When  the  disease  is  more  advanced,  convul- 
sions are  present,  and  there  is  a  gradual  tendency  to  loss 
of  power  as  denoted  by  frequent  falling.  The  patient  is 
throughout  the  delirious  stage  all  but  unapproachable ; 
the  pulse  is  full  and  bounding,  the  respirations  are  not 
usually  accelerated,  but  sometimes  slower  than  usual. 
There  is  a  want  of  method  in  the  fury  of  a  phrenitic  ox 
not  discernible  in  that  of  a  rabid  one.  Later,  paralysis 
sets  in,  and  is  succeeded  by  death. 

Treatment. — The  beast  having  been  secured  and  con- 
fined by  the  horns,  blood   may  be  abstracted  to  consider- 


378  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

able  amount,  which  will  materially  tend  to  relieve  the 
cerebral  and  meningeal  congestion ;  also,  cold  water  may- 
be constantly  applied  to  the  head,  and,  when  possible,  a 
cathartic  dose  administered.  Sometimes  croton  can  be 
given  where  more  bulky  remedial  agents  are  rejected, 
and  the  subcutaneous  injection  of  sedative  (not  narcotic) 
agents,  such  as  hydrocyanic  acid,  may  be  tried,  and  the 
tincture  of  aconite  may  be  administered  if  possible. 

Diagnosis. — This  disease  may  be  confounded  with  certain 
abdominal  disorders,  especially  impaction  of  the  omasum. 
It  may  be  distinguished  by  its  greater  acuteness  of  the 
symptoms,  the  presence  of  acute  febrile  conditions,  and 
the  history  of  the  case. 

Prognosis^  on  account  of  the  difficulty  in  managing 
the  patient,  is  unfavorable,  since  we  are  not  even  able 
to  adopt  proper  measures  of  nursing. 

Post-mortem  examination  shows  a  highly  congested 
condition  of  the  membranes  and  of  the  brain  substance,  as 
denoted  by  unusual  distinctness  of  the  puncta  vasculosa ; 
also,  sometimes  the  brain  is  softened,  and  there  is  fluid 
in  considerable  quantity  in  the  arachnoid  and  subarach- 
noid spaces.  Should  the  animal  recover,  there  is  a 
liability  to  recurrence,  so  that  altogether,  when  this 
affection  is  present,  the  best  treatment  is  to  destroy  the 
patient  and  utilise  the  carcase. 

Epilepsy — Megrims  or  Staggers — is  only  a  symptom  of 
disorder,  as  shown  by  the  varied  appearances  seen  post 
mortem.  Sometimes  it  is  seen  in  diseases  of  an  ordinary  cha- 
racter, as  anaemia,  and  certain  other  forms  of  blood  disease. 
Thus,  it  is  mostly  prevalent  among  young  and  debilitated 
animals.  Sometimes  on  autopsy  a  spiculum  of  bone  is  found 
penetrating  the  brain,  in  other  cases  there  are  scrofulous 
or  other  deposits,  and,  again,  there  may  be  induration  of 
the  white  matter,  with  a  marbled  or  rosy  colour  of  the 
grey,  and  adhesions  of  the  membranes  to  the  surface 
(Watson).  How  far  these  apply  to  the  conditions  in  the 
ox  we  are  not  in  a  position  to  state,  but  certainly  we  find 
epilepsy  associated  with  irregular  blood  supply.  '^We 
have  in    this  malady  another  illustration  of  the  fact  that. 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  379 

when  the  controlling  influence  of  the  cerehrum  is  sus- 
pended, the  peculiar  functions  of  the  spinal  marrow  are 
exercised,  not  only  in  a  disorderly,  but  also  in  an  un- 
usually energetic  manner"  (Watson).  Thus,  the  symptoms 
of  an  epileptic  fit  are,  after  a  premonitory  dulness,  a 
sudden  loss  of  brain  power,  as  denoted  by  the  animal 
staggering  and  falling,  and  remaining  for  a  shorter  or 
longer  time  in  a  state  of  unconsciousness.  Convulsive 
movements  of  the  limbs,  which  are  outstretched  and 
shivering,  of  the  respiratory  and  ocular  muscles,  and 
of  those  of  mastication,  are  very  marked.  There  is  froth- 
ing at  the  mouth  and  involuntary  passage  of  faeces  and 
urine.  Finally,  the  convulsions  cease  and  the  animal 
rises,  and  shortly  seems  again  in  a  healthy  state. 

Treatment  must  be  palliative,  and  directed  to  the  pro- 
duction of  blood  in  greater  quantity  and  of  a  better  quality, 
and  also  to  ensuring  its  regular  supply  to  the  head.  In 
young  stock  this  diseased  condition  is  most  frequently  seen. 
Since,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  there  is  a  deficient  supply  of 
blood  to  the  head,  bleeding  must  not  be  performed.  A 
cathartic  will  prove  useful  in  removing  any  irritant  from 
the  alimentary  canal.  As  soon  as  possible  animals  which 
have  once  suffered  in  this  way  should  be  sent  to  the 
butcher.      Cases  of  epilepsy  in  the  ox  are  rare. 

Apoplexy  is  the  reverse  condition,  in  so  far  as  blood 
supply  goes,  to  that  which  is  observed  in  most  cases  of 
epilepsy,  being  attributable  to  an  over-distension  of  the 
encephalic  vessels  with  blood,  and  a  giving  way  of  their 
walls,  thus  undue  pressure  is  exerted  upon  the  brain 
by  extravasated  blood.  Similar  symptoms  also  may  be 
seen  when  sudden  pressure  results  from  bursting  of  an 
accumulation,  and  other  influences  similar  in  their  nature. 
Plethora  is  the  most  fruitful  predisposing  cause.  The 
conditions  of  life  of  the  ox  especially  tend  to  render  him 
plethoric,  and  when  he  is  over-driven  or  excited  during 
hot  weather  apoplexy  is  apt  to  occur. 

Symptoms. — Some  slight  dulness  may  at  first  be  present, 
but  generally  the  animal  is  noticed  to  fall  suddenly,  with 
complete  loss   of  sensibility,  consciousness,  and  power  of 


380  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

voluntary  movement ;  the  eyes  in  an  amaurotic  condition ; 
the  breathing  slow,  stertorous,  laboured;  the  surface  of 
the  body  covered  with  cold  sweat.  Often  the  convulsive 
movements,  rolling  of  the  eyes,  and  sudden  falling  may 
lead  to  diagnosis  of  epilepsy,  but  this  will  soon  be  with- 
drawn, as  the  case  remains  in  the  same  condition,  or  lapses 
into  the  quiescent  form,  or  rapidly  terminates  in  death. 
This  results  from  extension  of  the  pressure  to  the  medulla 
oblongata,  and  interference  with  its  functions.  It  will 
be  observed  that  the  symptoms  vary  somewhat,  according 
to  the  seat  of  the  extravasated  blood.  This  condition  is 
sometimes  seen  in  association  with  fracture  of  the  cranium 
and  with  rupture  of  the  blood-vessels  such  as  may  also 
arise  from  other  forms  of  external  injury. 

Treatment  consists  in  free  bleeding  and  administration 
of  a  laxative,  but  is  seldom  effectual,  and  the  disease  is 
apt  to  recur. 

Dropsy  op  the  Beain  :  Hydrocephalus — is  the  accumula- 
tion of  serous  fluid  in  the  cranium,  either  between  or 
below  the  membranes  of  the  brain,  or  else  dropsy  of  the 
ventricles.  The  latter  condition  is  said  to  sometimes  occur 
in  adults,  but  it  certainly  is  very  rare.  Youatt  tells  us 
the  symptoms  mostly  resemble  those  of  apoplexy,  but  are 
gradually  developed.  The  former  state  occurs  in  the 
foetus,  and  causes  enormous  enlargement  of  the  head  and 
impediment  to  parturition.  The  practitioner,  when  called 
in,  finds  the  head  partly  in  the  generative  passage,  either 
the  muzzle  or  forehead  projecting  with  the  fore  limbs.  The 
enormous  cranium  is  yielding,  but  must  be  diminished  in 
bulk  by  tapping  with  a  trocar  and  long  canula,  or  by 
opening  with  the  knife.  To  give  room  the  fore  feet  should 
be  secured  with  ropes  and  returned  into  the  uterine  cavity. 
When  the  cranium  collapses  the  calf  will  readily  be 
expelled,  of  course  dead.  The  loss  is  not  to  be  lamented, 
as  it  would  have  done  no  good,  the  animal  remaining 
weakly  and  unthrifty  for  a  short  time,  and  then  dying. 
Youatt  gives  an  interesting  case,  in  which  puncture  was 
tried,  but  tetanus  supervened  and  the  animal  died.  He 
also  mentions  that  the   disease  may  appear  in  weakly  ani- 


THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 


381 


mals  after  birth.  In  these  cases  we  sliall  find  the  cranial 
bones  thin  and  widespread,  and  large  numbers  of  stellate 
Wormian  bones  placed  between  them,  in  the  endeavour  to 


Fig.  72 .  —Congenital  hydrocephalus,  causing  difficult  parturition.  (Simonds). 


382 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


close  up  the  large  cavity,  but  not  sufficient  to  replace  a 
great  part  of  the  membranous  walls.  The  brain  is  im- 
perfectly developed.  Sometimes  we  find  only  the  floor  of 
the  cranium  present,  its  bony  walls  being  entirely  absent, 
and  the  margins  of  the  imperfect  walls  regularly 
rounded  off. 

Paeasites  occasionally  grow  in  the  brain.  These  are 
the  same  hydatids  as  are  seen  in  the  brain  of  sheep,  giving 
rise  to  "turnsick.''^  They  are  known  as  Gcenuri  cerehrales, 
are  the  larval  form  of  the  Taenia  coenurus,  seen  in  its  and 
adult  state  in  the  dog.      They  affect  various  parts  of  the 


Fig.  73. —  Ccenurus  cerehralis. 
(After  Cobbold). 


Fig,  74. — Ccenurus  cerehralis. 
(a)  In  situ,  (After  Cobbold). 


brain,  generally  the  cerebral  hemispheres.  The  embryo 
which  has  escaped  from  the  ovum  of  the  tapeworm  bores 
its  way  through  the  tissues  and  enters  a  blood-vessel.  It 
lis  carried  in  the  round  of  the  circulation  to  the  brain,  and 
there  locates  itself.  It  increases  in  size,  and  generally  is 
large  before  it  causes  any  appreciable  symptoms,  which 
are  those  due  to  circumscribed  deficiency  of  a  portion  of 
the  brain,  or  some  forms  of  pressure  on  the  surface,  viz. 
constantly  moving  round  and  round  in  the  same  direction, 
and  generally  towards  the  side  on  which  pressure  is  made. 
The   disease  is   most  prevalent   in  young   animals,  and  in 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  383 

some  seasons  than  others ;  it  is  also  somewhat  rare  in  this 
country. 

Fost-mortem  examination  having  proved  the  presence  of 
the  parasite,  this  must  not  be  thrown  away  carelessly,  but 
destroyed  or  preserved  as  a  specimen,  for  it  is  of  interest. 
Trephining. may  be  experimentally  tried,  for  in  calves  the 
sinuses  are  very  small,  and  so  sometimes  a  yielding  of  thb 
bone  over  the  hydatid  may  be  perceived.  With  regard  to 
the  direction  of  turning  and  other  interesting  physiological 
deductions  from  this  disease,  as  seen  in  the  sheep, 
the  'Journal  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,'  1879-80,  may 
be  consulted  with  benefit. 

The  occurrence  of  bony  tumours  in  the  cranium  is 
noticed  under  the  heading  "  Exostoses.''  It  will  be 
remembered  that  the  cases  of  "  ossified  brain''  recorded 
are  of  this  nature. 

We  know  but  little  of  the  derangements  of  the  brain  of 
a  less  striking  nature  than  those  hitherto  described  which, 
perhaps,  occur  in  the  ox.  But  we  must  remember  that 
the  conditions  of  life  of  this  animal  are  not  such  as  to 
call  for  any  high  exercise  of  cerebral  functions,  nor  are 
cattle,  as  a  rule,  subjected  to  such  close  scrutiny  as 
suffices  to  detect  slight  indications  of  brain  disorder. 
This  organ  is  very  liable  to  disease  in  association  with 
deranged  conditions  of  the  digestive  apparatus,  and  a 
disease  of  this  kind  has  been  described  as  Stomach  staggers, 
but  really  is  a  case  of  functional  brain  disease  due  to  con- 
gestion. We  are  familiar  with  the  drowsy  sensation 
which  results  from  a  fulness  of  the  stomach  ;  the  same  is 
sometimes  exaggerated  in  cattle,  giving  rise  to  Goma, 
which  is  denoted  by  dulness  and  a  torpid  condition,  with 
sleepiness  and  a  tendency  to  fall  down,  especially  when 
the  head  is  elevated.  The  respirations  are  deep  and  slow, 
the  pulse  full  and  slow,  and  the  pupil  dilated.  This  is 
the  state  also  induced  by  narcotic  poisons  ;  it  is  then 
termed  Narcosis,  It  must  be  treated  by  bleeding,  stimu- 
lants, and  a  full  cathartic  dose. 

Delirium  is  a  condition  of  perverted  cerebral  functions 
seen  in  some  diseases,  such  as  encephalitis  and  some  forms 


384  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

of  blood  disorder,,  and  it  also  results  from  the  action 
of  certain  poisons.  There  is  a  wild  look  of  the  eye, 
excitement  and  sometimes  fury,  with  violent  struggling 
and  discharge  of  frothy  saliva  from  the  mouth. 

Diseases  of  the  Spinal  Coed  have  not  been  diagnosed 
with  thorough  accuracy,  though  Cruzel  gives  a  long 
account  of  myelitis,  which,  he  says,  is  very  rare  in  the 
ox.  Associated  with  this  important  nervous  centre  are 
two  remarkable  conditions  which,  having  been  described 
as  distinct  diseases,  must  be  rather  looked  upon  much  in  the 
same  light  as  coma  and  delirium,  they  being  symptoms 
which  may  be  dependent  upon  any  of  several  pathological 
states.  Thus,  Tetanus  or  Locked  Jaw  may  be  caused  by 
electric  stimulation  of  a  motor  nerve  or  the  spinal  cord,  or 
by  the  introduction  of  strychnia  into  the  system,  or  by 
certain  conditions  of  nerves  associated  with  a  wound,  or, 
we  believe,  as  a  result  of  the  action  of  cold  and  other 
influences.  It  is  simply  an  excitation  of  the  spinal  cord, 
causing  it  to  throw  so  many  impressions  into  the  motor 
nerves  so  closely  following  one  another  that  tonic  spasm 
results.  It  may  be  diffused  or  circumscribed.  In  the 
latter  case  simply  the  source  of  motor-nerve  force  to  the 
muscles  of  the  head  may  be  affected  then  the  jaws  are 
fixed  and  the  retractor  muscle  draws  the  eyeball  back 
into  the  orbit  and  so  causes  persistent  protrusion  of 
cartilage -nictitans.  This  is  known  as  trismus.  Again,  we 
may  find  only  the  muscles  of  one  side  of  the  body  affected 
(jpleurosthotonos) J  or  those  above  the  spine  (opisthotonos), 
or  those  below  (emprosthotonos) .  In  other  cases  we  find 
a  combination  of  these  conditions.  In  disease  is  de- 
scribed as  Traumatic  when  due  to  wounds,  and  Idiopathic 
when  no  wound  can  be  found  to  which  it  may  be  attri- 
buted. It  must  not  be  supposed  that  it  is  only  the 
motor  portion  of  the  cord  which  is  affected,  for  there  are 
indications  that  hyperaosthesia  is  present  often  to  a 
marked  degree,  thus,  excitation  of  the  patient  is  apt  to 
give  rise  to  exaggeration  of  the  spasm,  and  quietude  is  by 
far  the  most  important  feature  of  treatment. 

Symptoms. — A    gradually    increasing  difficulty   is  evi- 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  385 

dently  found  in  separating  the  jaws,  and  in  performance  of 
the  voluntary  movements  in  general.  The  disinclination 
to  feed  is  the  first  matter  which  directs  attention  to  the 
case,  but  there  is  no  concomitant  fever.  There  is  a 
straddling  gait,  due  to  inflexibility  of  the  hind  limbs. 
Attention  is  directed  to  the  mouth  to  determine  the  cause 
of  refusal  of  food,  and  it  is  found  that  by  this  time  the 
jaws  are  locked.  Usually  there  is  a  flow  of  saliva  of  a 
foetid  character  from  the  mouth  when  the  lips  are  separated. 
Soon  the  appearance  of  the  patient  becomes  characteristic  ; 
there  is  a  marked  condition  of  the  muscles,  due  to  rigi- 
dity, the  tail  is  slightly  straightened,  the  haw  protruded, 
and  the  animal  moves  '^  all  of  one  piece.'^  If  the  haw  be 
not  protruded  it  will  do  so  when  the  head  is  raised.  The 
muzzle  is  extended  forwards,  and  there  is  obstinate  con- 
stipation. The  animal  sometimes  tries  to  feed,  and 
succeeds  in  sucking  up  a  small  quantity  of  fluid  ;  he  some- 
times falls  and  continues  in  the  recumbent  position,  but 
as  often  stands  persistently.  Respiration  is  materially 
interfered  with  by  the  contraction  of  the  inspiratory 
muscles,  but  the  diaphragm  for  a  long  time  retains  its 
activity.  That  the  sympathetic  system  is  involved  is 
inferred  from  the  state  of  the  bowels ;  in  some  cases  this 
may  be  primary,  and  the  disease  of  the  cord  secondary. 
As  a  general  rule,  the  reverse  is  the  case.  Sometimes 
the  disease  proves  rapidly  fatal,  and  causes  death  on  the 
second  or  third  day  ;  if  the  patient  lives  to  the  sixth  day 
some  hopes  of  cure  may  be  held  out,  but  the  prog- 
nosis is  never  very  favorable,  for  we  are  working  very 
much  in  the  dark  in  treating  tetanus.  In  some  cases  it 
is  directly  traceable  to  a  wound  either  in  the  suppurative 
or  cicatrising  stage,  when  it  is  supposed  that  some  nerve- 
fibre  is  entangled  in  the  scar  or  otherwise  disordered.  Of 
these  wounds  the  most  frequent  are  surface-grazes,  those 
produced  in  castration,  and  pricks  in  shoeing.  Owing  to 
the  frequency  of  the  latter,  it  is  said  to  be  most  prevalent 
in  working  oxen.  The  idiopathic  forms  are  attributable 
to  exposure  to  cold  and  sudden  changes  of  temperature, 
especially  when    the   skin  is  heated.      Thus,  it   is  some- 

25 


386  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

times  seen  in  newly-born  animals  as  Trismus  nascentium. 
It  is  also  attributed  to  over-driving  (when  it  may  depend 
on  soreness  of  the  feet)  and  the  presence  of  irritants  in 
the  alimentary  canal.  The  latter,  besides  (probably) 
causing  the  disease,  increase  its  intensity,  as  is  proved  by 
the  beneficial  effects  of  catharsis.  To  induce  this  extremely 
large  doses  of  powerful  drastics  are  given,  and  it  is  wonder- 
ful with  what  impunity.  Once  trismus  has  set  in  adminis- 
tration of  medicines  in  the  ordinary  way  is  difficult,  but  croton 
oil  may  be  placed  on  the  tongue.  Other  agents  may  be 
given  per  rectum,  but  the  best  method  is  subcutaneous 
injection.  Thus,  morphia  may  be  administered,  or  prussic 
acid,  or  a  trial  may  be  made  of  the  nitrite  of  amyl.  Chloro- 
form inhaled  is  found  to  relax  spasm  temporarily,  and  the 
same  effect  follows  its  administration  per  rectum ;  it 
exerts  no  permanent  influence.  In  these  cases  quiet 
must  be  substituted  even  for  ordinary  nursing  measures. 
The  patient  must  be  placed  in  a  dark  and  hushed  place, 
and  left  there  with  a  free  supply  of  gruel  available  and  a 
good  bed.  The  wound  to  which  the  attack  is  attributed 
may  be  treated  by  sedative  applications  and  poulticed. 
Moller  has  shown  (see  '  Veterinarian,^  1880)  that  tetanus 
cannot  be  produced  by  transfusion  of  blood  from  a 
tetanic  to  a  healthy  animal;  it,  therefore,  is  not  specific, 
as  some  suppose.  No  definite  post-mortem  lesions  have 
been  observed,  but  in  many  cases  there  are  congestion 
of  the  spinal  cord  and  its  membranes,  softening  of  the 
cord,  and  accumulation  of  fluid  between  the  membranes. 

An  interesting  feature  of  this  disease  is  the  height  to 
which  the  internal  temperature  may  rise.  Some  of  the 
highest  readings  on  record  in  the  human  being  were 
taken  from  acute  cases  of  this  disorder. 

Paralysis — Palsy — is  also  a  symptomatic  condition 
referable  to  many  different  causes,  and  varying  much  in 
its  characters.  It  is  loss  of  voluntary  motor  power  in  a 
few  or  many  of  the  muscles  of  the  body,  and  generally 
is  accompanied  by  a  similar  condition,  anaesthesia,  loss 
of  sensory  power.  This  union  of  the  two  conditions  is 
the  result  of  the  proximity  of  the   sensory  and  motorial 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  387 

tracts,  bofh  in  the  majority  of  nerves  and  in  the  spinal 
cord.  Tlie  degree  of  palsy  may  vary  from  that  of  a 
single  muscle  to  total  paralysis.  When  the  whole  of  one 
side  of  the  body  is  affected,  it  is  termed  hemiplegia, 
when  both  hind  limbs,  paraplegia.  In  the  other  cases, 
simply  "  paralysis.'^  It  may  result  from  pressure  on,  or 
disease  of  the  medulla  oblongata,  pressure  on  the 
spinal  cord  on  the  same  side  as  the  loss  of  power 
between  the  origin  of  the  roots  of  the  nerves  and  the 
brain,  or  on  the  nerves  of  supply  to  the  affected  part. 
Section  of  these  structures  or  diseased  action  has  the 
same  effect.  The  loss  of  power  does  not  generally  occur 
suddenly,  though  it  may  do  so,  but  where  the  limbs  are 
affected  there  is  a  staggering  gait,  and  a  tendency  to  cross 
the  hind  legs.  The  most  prevalent  form  in  the  ox  is 
paraplegia.  It  is  most  frequent  in  old  animals,  especially 
those  turned  out  on  damp  low  pastures  and  during  severe 
weather.  All  hardships  tend  to  the  occurrence  of  cases 
of  this  kind  in  the  herd.  Sometimes  we  find  that 
the  pressure  on  the  nerves  or  cord  is  due  to  fracture  ; 
in  this  case  the  paraplegia  occurs  suddenly  after  a  fall 
or  some  other  form  of  injury,  and  the  animal  retains 
sensibility  and  motor  power  in  all  parts  anterior  to  the 
fracture,  and  loses  them  posteriorly,  but  it  must  be 
remembered  that  reflex  movements  may  occur,  though 
they  are  not  frequent.  In  the  horse,  intermittent  para- 
lysis of  the  hind  limbs  has  been  found  to  be  due  to 
plugging  of  the  iliac  arteries  with  lymph ;  such  cases 
have  not  been  noticed  in  the  ox,  but  cases  of  paraplegia 
in  pregnant  animals  are  sometimes  seen,  in  which  the 
paralysis  disappears  after  parturition  ;  in  them  there  may 
be  pressure  on  the  posterior  aorta,  or  the  iliacs  more 
particularly,  interfering  with  blood  supply.  Tumours  of 
various  kinds  may  be  observed  post-mortem,  or  even 
during  life,  in  such  positions  as  to  press  upon  the  nerves 
of  the  affected  part.  Sometimes  paralysis  is  due  to  the 
action  of  poisonous  agents ;  of  these  cases,  lead  palsy  is 
the  most  remarkable. 

Treatment. — All  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  comfort 


388  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

of  the  animal,  which  must  have  a  good  bed  and  be 
frequently  turned  to  avoid  bed-sores^  which  are  very 
liable  to  occur  under  an  aggravated  form  in  these  patients. 
When  the  case  is  attributable  to  debility,  we  may  expect 
success  in  restoring  the  patient,  but,  as  a  rule,  these  are 
protracted  and  doubtful  cases.  When  fracture  of  the 
spine  exists,  or  we  surmise  that  tumours  compress  the 
nerves  and  cannot  be  removed,  we  must  anticipate  a 
prolonged  course  of  treatment,  loss  of  condition,  and 
want  of  success.  It  is  better,  therefore,  to  at  once 
have  the  patient  destroyed.  When  the  pressure  is  due 
to  inflammatory  deposits,  we  may  expect  these  to  become 
absorbed  in  time,  and  the  process  of  removal  will  perhaps 
be  accelerated  by  the  use  of  such  agents  as  the  iodide  ol: 
iron,  which  is  at  once  deobstruent  and  tonic ;  also  by  the 
external  application  of  biniodide-of-mercury  ointment.  The 
food  should  always  be  as  nutritious  as  the  digestive  appa- 
ratus is  able  to  bear,  and  also  of  a  laxative  nature.  The 
urine  may  require  to  be  removed  frequently  by  means  of  the 
catheter.  Lastly,  treatment  of  chronic  cases  by  strychnia  in 
two-grain  doses,  gradually  increasing  and  continuedfor  some 
time,  may  lead  to  return  of  nerve  force  to  a  portion  of 
the  spinal  cord,  which  has  had  its  powers  reduced  by 
some  influence.  Hand-rubbing  of  the  affected  parts,  and 
mild  stimulation  and  clothing,  are  useful  adjuncts.  The 
muscles  of  the  paralysed  part  decrease  in  size,  and  some- 
times degenerate  into  masses  of  fibrous  tissue ;  this  is 
an  advanced  stage.  The  muscles  less  affected  are  found 
in  the  stage  of  fatty  degeneration.  This  is  well  seen  in 
cases  of  progressive  lipomatous  paralysis,  such  as  is 
noticed  in  the  '  Veterinarian  '  for  1880.  We  have  often 
observed  this  in  our  dissection  of  monstrosities,  in  which 
the  nerve  centres  have  been  destroyed  after  due  develop- 
ment of  the  muscles,  or  in  which  muscles  and  nerves 
have  developed  independently  of  nerve  centres.  It  seems 
that  as  long  as  they  are  involuntary  the  skeletal  muscles 
develop  without  the  aid  of  nerve  centres,  but  when  they 
become  striated,  unless  used    they  degenerate,  and  they 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  389 

can  scarcely  come  into  use  except  under  the  influence  of 
the  cerebro- spinal  nerve  centres. 

Adynamia  nervosa  generalis  (Armatage)  is  that 
nervous  debility  wbich  affects  some  cows  during  the  later 
stages  of  pregnancy,  which  has  been  confounded  with 
parturient  apoplexy,  but  which  is  only  indicated  by  a 
want  of  ability  to    rise,    a    tendency  to  coldness    of    the 


b^h 


Fig.  7o. — The  natural  position  of  rest  as  retained  in  adynamia.    (Armatage.) 

surface,  and  a  weakness  of  the  pulse,  with  some  torpidity 
of  the  bowels,  otherwise  the  animal  remains  apparently  in 
good  health.  It  has  been  attributed  to  pressure  of  the 
uterus  containing  the  foetus  on  the  posterior  aorta,  pre- 
venting the  proper  supply  of  blood  to  the  hind  extremities, 
and  in  some  instances  this  seems  to  be  the  case,  but  it 
often  persists  after  parturition,  therefore  it  must  be  due 
also  to  other  causes.  Of  these,  the  demands  of  the  fcetus 
on  the  nutritive  material  of  the  blood  is  considered  to  be 
one  of  the  principal.  Sometimes  it  is  treated  successfully 
by  suddenly  frightening  the  animal,  but  it  is  better  to 
keep  the  bowels  open  by  means  of  enemas  and  the 
surface  of  the  body  warm,  and  support  the  strength  of 
the  animal  until  it  has  entirely  recovered  from  the  effects 
of  utero-gestation.      Small  doses  of  strychnia   have  been 


390  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

recommended,  and  stimulant  applications  along  the  length 
of  the  back  are  of  decided  benefit. 

Chorea — Stringhalt. — Cases  of  this  nature  charac- 
terised by  clonic  muscular  spasms  have  been  described, 
as  in  the  'Veterinarian/  vol.  xv,  p.  71,  and  '  Edinburgh 
Yeterinary  Keview,^  vol.  iv,  p.  237.  In  the  latter  instance 
a  number  of  animals  were  affected,  and  this  was  attri- 
buted to  the  practice  of  giving  them  burnt  ale  with  their 
food. 

Partur[ent  Apoplexy — "  milh  fever/'  "  dropjping  after 
calving^' — is  a  disease  peculiar  to  the  cow,  generally 
occurring  after  calving,  and  within  three  days  of  that 
event,  most  frequent  after  easy  accomplishment  of  birth, 
in  good  milkers,  and  in  old  animals  seldom  before  the 
third  calf,  perhaps  most  often  seen  after  the  fifth ;  very 
liable  to  recurrence  in  animals  which  have  once  suffered 
from  it  when  the  time  for  parturition  again  comes  round. 
It  is  noticed  most  frequently  in  warm  weather,  and  in 
animals  which  are  in  a  plethoric  state  at  the  time  of  par- 
turition. The  disease  is  mentioned  as  also  taking  place 
in  some  cases  before  birth,  and  some  say  even  several 
weeks  after  that  event ;  but  this  is  very  doubtful,  and,  at 
any  rate,  quite  exceptional. 

Symptoms. — The  cow,  some  time  after  parturition, 
generally  about  four  hours,  becomes  restless,  raises  the 
hind  feet  alternately,  breathes  rather  quickly,  is  unwilling 
to  move,  and  staggers  during  progression.  There  is 
cessation  of  appetite  and  rumination,  a  staring  condition 
of  the  eye  and — a  sign  of  great  significance — the  supply 
of  milk  suddenly  fails.  Shortly,  in  about  twenty-four 
hours  after  parturition,  the  animal  falls,  the  hind  limbs 
giving  way,  and  remains  on  the  ground,  generally  after 
several  ineffectual  attempts  to  rise.  Then,  it  is  found  that 
the  eyes  are  protruding  and  bloodshot,  and  insensible  to 
the  touch;  in  fact,  there  is  a  general  loss  of  sensation 
and  power  of  voluntary  motion.  The  pulse  is  now  full, 
soft,  and  frequently  slow,  but  subsequently  it  becomes 
faster,  smaller,  and  finally  imperceptible.  The  respiratory 
efforts   are  slow  and  infrequent,  and,  after  a  little  time, 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  391 

stertorous.  The  visible  mucous  -membranes  are  purple  in 
colour,  and  the  head  and  horns  are  hot.  The  animal  is 
delirious,  and  dashes  the  head  about  with  extreme  violence. 


Fia.  76. — Puerperal   (Parturient)  apoplexy  in  the  Cow.     (From   Fleming'a 
*  Veterinary  Obstetrics.') 

or  becomes  comatose,  and  lies  with  the  head  flexed  round 
on  the  shoulder^.  Amaurosis  sets  in,  and  there  are  twitch- 
ings  of  the  muscles  of  the  eyelids.  The  udder  remains 
soft  and  flaccid,  or  sometimes  becomes  hard  and  small. 
All  power  of  swallowing  is  lost,  the  bowels  do  not  act,  and 
the  urine  is  retained.  Tympany  also  is  present.  Usually 
the  coma  becomes  more  profound  and  the  signs  of  vitality 
less  marked,  until  the  patient  dies ;  but  in  other  cases 
the  functions  of  the  internal  organs  commence  to  be  more 
satisfactorily  performed ;  the  bowels  act,  the  pulse  becomes 
perceptible,  and  the  respirations  more  frequent,  and 
gradually  the  patient  recovers.  Even  after  the  animal  is 
far  advanced  towards  convalescence  relapse  may  take 
place,  and  we  have  seen  cases  in  which  the  slow  recovery 
was  seriously  interfered  witb,  the  sloughing  of  large 
patches  of  skin — bed-sores,  in  fact — resulting  from  a  want 
of  attention  to  frequent  turning  and  protection  from  the 
acridity  of  urine  while  the  animal  was  recumbent.  To  these 
lesions  an  animal  recovering  from  this   disease  seems  par- 

^  This  is  by  some  considered  due  to  special  tonic  spasm  of  the  cervical 


mus 


icles. 


392  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

ticularly  liable,  probably  in  consequence  of  interference 
with  the  nervous  supply  of  the  superficial  parts. 

Post-mortem  exa/mination. — The  blood  dark  in  colour 
and  distending  the  veins;  petechias  of  various  serous 
membranes ;  congestion  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  with 
apoplectic  clots  on  various  parts. 

Pathology. — Gamgee  and  other  authorities  on  this 
subject  consider  that  there  is  present  in  the  blood  a  specific 
element.  The  congested  condition  of  the  veins  in  general 
and  the  dark  colour  of  the  blood,  together  with  the  ecchy- 
mosis  of  the  serous  membranes  observed  post-mortem, 
seem  to  support  this  view  until  we  consider  that  the  blood 
must  contain  many  impurities,  as  a  result  of  defective 
action  of  all  the  excretory  organs.  Probably  those  cases 
in  which  the  disease  has  been  communicated  were  septic 
peritonitis,  a  disease  frequently  mistaken  for  that  in  ques- 
tion. Another  argument  advanced  is,  that  the  disease 
sometimes  assumes  an  enzootic  form,  but  this  is  probably 
attributable  to  uniformity  of  surroundings  and  mis- 
management of  a  number  of  pregnant  cows.  The  "  ana- 
tomical theory  '^  is  that  this  disease  is  due  to  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  arteries  at  the  base  of  the  brain,  as  a  rete 
mirabile,  rendering  the  cow  liable  to  apoplexy,  especially 
when  the  supply  of  blood  to  the  pregnant  uterus  is  cut 
off,  and  there  is  no  compensatory  determination  to  the 
mammary  gland.  That  the  arrangement  of  the  arteries 
has  little  to  with  the  matter  is  shown  by  the  fact  of 
the  spinal  cord,  as  well  as  the  brain,  being  the  seat 
of  extravasations.  Some  attribute  the  disease  to  accu- 
mulation of  milk-producing  elements  in  the  blood,  giving 
rise  to  fever  and,  practically,  blood  poisoning ;  to  sudden 
overloadiug  of  the  system  with  blood,  causing  nervous 
disorder;  to  encephalic  anaamia  (eclampsia).  After  a 
very  careful  consideration  of  the  various  theories  on 
the  subject,  Fleming  ('Veterinary  Obstetrics,'  p.  Q&S) 
adopts  the  latter  view,  as  suggested  by  Franck,  and  he 
considers  the  view  of  Professor  Barlow,  one  of  the  ablest 
of  British  cattle  pathologists,  as  "most  far-fetched.^' 
He  hardly  treats  this  view,  which  is  supported  by  Pro- 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  393 

fessor  Williams,  with  proper  respect.  These  professors 
considered  the  disease  a  disorder  of  the  sympathetic 
nervous  system.  Many  considerations  tend  to  render 
this  view  most  probable.  In  the  ox,  and  especially 
the  milch  cow,  this  system  is  most  highly  developed. 
Alimentation,  lactation,  and  utero-gestation,  are  under  its 
direct  control,  and  its  influence  is  especially  appreciable 
in  the  various  secretory  processes.  At  parturition,  when 
the  act  is  rapidly  accomplished,  undoubtedly  a  large 
excess  of  blood  is  thrown  upon  the  system ;  the  effects 
are  the  same  as  when  a  flux  of  long  standing  is  suddenly 
stopped  — either  some  excretory  organ  exerts  its  powers  of 
vicarious  action,  or  there  is  sudden  increase  in  blood 
pressure,  and  congestions  and  apoplectic  lesions  take  place. 
Normally,  the  mammary  gland  becomes  very  active,  and 
removes  the  excess  of  nutritive  blood  constituents,  while 
watery  matters  and  salines  are  also  removed  by  the 
other  excretory  organs.  If  any  influences  lead  to  imper- 
fection of  this  safety-valve  action  congestions  and  apo- 
plexy take  place.  That  the  functions  presided  over  by 
the  sympathetic  gangliated  cord  are  not  duly  performed 
is  evident  in  parturient  apoplexy.  The  sudden  loss  of 
milk,  retention  of  urine,  torpidity  of  the  bowels,  and  loss 
of  power  of  deglutition,  are  proofs  of  this.  But  the  next 
question  is  as  to  what  has  brought  about  this  disorder  ? 
We  must  answer  this  by  saying  that  the  violent  throes 
which  were  necessary  for  the  rapid  expulsion  of  the  foetus 
depended  on  excessively  violent  nervous  efforts,  which  so 
exhausted  the  sympathetic  system  as  not  to  admit  of  its 
recovery  until  apoplectic  mischief  has  been  done  by  the 
method  above  described.  With  the  present  state  of  phy- 
siological knowledge  of  the  sympathetic  nervous  system 
we  are  not  in  a  position  to  reason  the  matter  out  more 
closely,  but  it  is  evident  that  this  view  is  worthy  of  atten- 
tion, and  some  pathologists  will  find  it  hard  to  believe 
that  apoplexy  is  due  to  angemic  conditions  of  a  part  which 
is  found  congested  after  death.  The  occurrence  of  coma, 
delirium,  and  convulsions  is  thoroughly  explicable,  as  due 
to  congestion  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord.     The  disten- 


394    •  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

sion  of  the  blood-vessels  seen  post  mortem  and  the  purple 
colour  of  the  visible  mucous  membranes  throughout  the 
attack  show  that  extreme  fulness  of  vessels  is  present  in 
these  cases,  and  also  a  loss  of  tone  of  their  muscular 
structure.  Several  other  theories  as  to  the  nature  of  the 
disease  might  be  given,  but  it  is  not  necessary.  Williams' 
idea,  ''that  the  particular  congestion  of  the  brain  and  its 
meninges  is  determined  by  the  state  of  mental  excitement 
which  is  always  present  at  this  period,  an  argument  borne 
out  by  the  fact  that  the  removal  of  the  offspring  from  the 
mother  is  a  fruitful  cause  of  the  so-called  milk  fever,''  is 
feasible,  but  such  an  exciting  cause  is  not  absolutely 
essential,  and  the  brain  is  not  the  only  part  of  the  body 
which  is  congested  and  presents  blood  extravasations. 

Treatment. — Prophylactic  consists  in  ensuring  a  healthy 
state  of  the  constitution  towards  the  time  of  parturition  by 
allowing  a  little  exercise  and  adopting  other  means  to 
avoid  plethora.  Some  authorities  even  suggest  cathartic 
doses  and  bleeding  with  this  object. 

Curative. — In  the  earliest  stages  the  abstraction  of  blood 
is  decidedly  beneficial,  and  a  large  cathartic  dose  must  be 
administered.  This  latter  measure  should  always  be 
adopted  whatever  the  stage  of  the  disorder,  for  one  of 
the  most  important  indications  is  to  get  the  bowels  to  act, 
and  it  is  really  wonderful  what  large  doses  of  purgatives 
may  remain  in  the  alimentary  canal  without  producing 
any  effect,  for  the  great  distension  of  the  blood-vessels 
prevents  their  absorption.  Usually  a  combination  of 
salines  with  aloes  is  recommended.  In  no  disease  is  more 
careful  and  assiduous  nursing  required.  The  animal  must 
be  supported  by  bundles  of  straw,  and  covered  with  cloths, 
the  udder  stripped  regularly,  and  friction  applied  all  over 
the  surface  of  the  body.  Cold  water  or  ice  may  be 
applied  to  the  forehead,  which  may  tend  to  rouse  the 
tonicity  of  the  cranial  arteries,  which  may  thereby  overcome 
the  passive  congestion,  but  a  more  important  means  is 
the  frequent  administration  of  small  doses  of  diffusible 
stimulants,  which,  we  believe,  tend  to  rouse  the  sympa- 
thetic  system  into   activity,  and   to   diffuse  some  of  that 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  395 

nerve  force  now  heaped  up  in  tlie  cerebro- spinal  centres, 
as  manifested  by  delirium  and  convulsive  efforts.  It  is 
usual  to  apply  a  stimulant  or  a  sheep- skin  along  the  course 
of  the  spine.  Enemas  should  be  frequently  given,  and 
the    urine    drawn    off    with    the    catheter.       All    agents 


Fig.  77.— Catheter. 

administered  internally  should  be  given  by  means  of  the 
stomach-pump,  as  deglutition  is  impaired  and  fluids  are 
apt  to  fall  down  the  trachea,  and  to  cause  the  death  by 
mechanical  bronchitis  of  an  animal  which  otherwise  might 
have  recovered.  Also  introduction  of  the  tube  into  the 
stomach  will  tend  to  relieve  tympany.  A  very  good  plan 
is  to  insert  the  trochar  and  canula,  and  to  administer  the 
stimulant  doses  through  the  opening.  Any  change  for 
the  better  must  not  cause  relaxation  in  our  efforts,  but  the 
animal  must  not  be  allowed  to  feed  on  anything  but  easily 
digestible  laxative  food,  or  strictly  for  some  time  kept  on 
a  gruel  diet. 

Results. — We  have  already  alluded  to  the  liability  of  this 
disorder  to  recur.  Resolution  takes  place  more  frequently 
in  some  parts  of  the  country  than  in  others,  and  thus  the 
fatality  has  been  variously  estimated.  Paraplegia  is  one  of 
the  most  unsatisfactory  results,  dependent  upon  pressure  on 
or  disorganisation  of  the  cord.  Such  cases  are  occasionally 
treated  successfully  by  means  of  tonics,  strychnia,  and 
absorbent  agents,  and  blisters  over  the  course  of  the  spine. 
Sometimes,  as  the  deposit  is  gradually  removed,  they 
undergo  spontaneous  cure.  Where  there  are  no  signs  of 
amendment  after  a  short  treatment,  the  animal  should  be 
slaughtered,  and,  if  in  a  fit  state,  used  as  food.  Whether 
the  carcase  of  an  animal  which  has  been  destroyed  while 
suffering  from  milk  fever  is  fit  for  food  is  much  debated. 
It  has  nothing  specific  about  it,  but  the  blood  is  so  laden 
with  impurities  that  we  must  condemn  such  meat  as  bad. 


396  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

though  we  cannot  say  that  it  will  cause  disease  in  animals 
which  consume  it. 

Cases  of  Parturient  Fever,  ordinary  fever  observed 
after  parturition,  which  present  no  special  features  of 
treatment,  must  not  be  confused  with  parturient  apoplexy ; 
and  the  latter  disease  must  be  carefully  distinguished 
from  septic  peritonitis,  adynamia,  and  simple  metritis. 

Mania  pueepeealis  is  a  disease  which  is  occasionally 
seen  a  few  days  after  parturition,  characterised  by  extreme 
excitement,  constant  champing  of  the  jaws,  with  gnawing 
of  the  surrounding  objects,  especially  the  animaFs  own 
fore  legs.  These  symptoms  are  somewhat  similar  to  those 
of  rabies,  but  contagion  cannot  be  traced,  there  is  the 
special  relation  to  parturition,  and  the  attack  generally 
lasts  only  a  short  time  and  yields  to  the  action  of  opiates. 
It  is  attributed  to  dyspepsia,  exposure,  and  to  removal  of 
the  calf  from  the  cow.  Cases  are  recorded  in  the  '  Vete- 
rinary Journal,'  vol.  ii,  p.  17,  and  vol.  ix,  p.  13.  Mr. 
Storrar,  of  Chester,  prefers  to  consider  this  disease  as  a 
form  of  epilepsy. 

With  regard  to  the  Nerves,  we  can  only  state  that 
Neueotomy  has  been  performed  in  the  ox  as  in  the  horse, 
the  anterior  plantar  nerves  being  divided  as  well  as  the 
lateral.  The  operation  is  so  seldom  performed  that  we 
need  merely  allude  to  it  here  as  having  been  resorted  to 
successfully. 

In  the  third  volume  of  the  '  Edinburgh  Yeterinary 
Review,'  p.  503,  is  a  case  of  suppose  division  of  the 
jpneumo gastric  nerve  in  bleeding.  Vomition,  cough,  and 
atrophy  of  the  left  lung  resulted. 

Section  2. 

Diseases  of  the  Sympathetic  nervous  system  in  the  ox 
do  not  seem  to  have  been  recognised,  except  in  so  far  as 
has  been  already  mentioned.     (See  Parturient  Apoplexy.) 


DISEASES    OF    THE    SKELETON.  397 


CHAPTER  IX.— DISEASES  OF  THE  SKELETON. 

The  Skeleton  of  the  ox  is  heavy  and  comparatively 
simple.  The  skull  is  large^  for  the  face  has  to  accommo- 
date the  huge  grinding  teeth.  It  also  is  peculiarly  bent 
upon  the  cranium.  The  f rentals  especially  are  well 
developed^  occupying  the  whole  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
cranium,  prolonged  on  each  side  as  a  horn  core  and  per- 
meated throughout  by  sinuses,  which  contain  heated  air, 
and  lessen  the  weight  of  the  head.  The  cervical  vertebras 
are  short  and  stout,  and  ligamentum  nuchae  is  well  developed, 
but  special  in  its  character,  having  a  layer  of  it  on  each 
side  lying  externally  to  complexus  major.  The  lumbar 
region  is  composed  of  stout  bones  with  long  non-articulatory 
transverse  processes.  The  shoulder-girdle  consists  of  a 
scapula,  with  the  coracoid  appended  to  it  as  a  process.  The 
clavicle  is  only  represented  by  a  white  fibrous  band. 
The  humerus  has  a  single  groove  at  its  supero-anterior 
part,  and  the  ulna  is  prolonged  to  the  knee.  The  pelvic 
girdle  is  principally  remarkable  for  the  large  size  of  the 
ischium,  which  (with  its  symphysis)  inclines  peculiarly 
upwards  posteriorly.  Consequently  the  sacro-sciatic  liga- 
ment is  small.  The  most  important  feature  of  the  hip- 
joint  is  the  absence  of  the  pubio-femoral  ligament ;  the 
femur,  therefore,  has  freer  movement  than  that  of  the 
horse,  its  trochanter  major  is  not  so  much  divided,  and 
there  is  no  third  trochanter.  The  fibula,  in  all  but  very 
old  animals,  is  ligamentous  throughout,  except  where  it 
is  situated  below  the  outer  side  of  the  tibia,  and  assists  in 
the  formation  of  the  tarsus  by  articulating  with  os  calcis. 
Other  peculiarities   have  been  already  mentioned    (as  at 


398 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


pp,  309  and  316,  &c.).  Diseases  of  the  skeleton  in  the  ox 
are  not  so  frequent  as  in  the  horse,  but  yet  are  not  un- 
common. 

Section  1. — Abnoemalities  of  the  Osseous  System. 


Ostitis. — Inflammation    of  Bone — results    from   injury 
or    from    specific    influences,    especially    the    scrofulous 


Fig.  78. — Skeleton  of  the  ox.    (Dobson .) 

diathesis.  Abscess  is  the  most  frequent  result.  Also, 
since  the  inflammation  causes  condensation  of  bone  tissue, 
the  supply  of  nutriment  to  the  articular  surfaces  is  cut  off, 
and  caries  with  arthritis  ensues.  Pain  is  very  marked  in 
these  cases,  and  swelling  is  but  slight  and  very  gradual. 
The  death  of  bone  is  termed  necrosis,  and  the  portion 
removed  is  a  sequestrum.  When  a  bone  is  diseased  at 
the  bottom  of  a  wound,  or  when  an  abscess  from  a  bone 
has  burst  externally,  the  most  important  indication  is  to 
remove  all  dead  parts,  otherwise  an  ichorous  discharge 
persists,    sinuses    extend  in  various    directions,   and  the 


DISEASES    OF    THE    SKELETON.  399 

affected  part  undergoes  extensive  disorganisation.  When 
a  number  of  fragments  of  bone  are  separated  in  a  com- 
minuted fracture  these  act  as  foreign  bodies^  and  necrose 
through  defective  blood  supply.  When  this  is  the  case 
the  larger  portions  may  be  surgically  removed,  and  when- 
ever a  small  amount  of  necrosis  is  present  hydrochloric  acid 
dressings  will  prove  useful  by  breaking  up  the  bony 
structure.  One  of  the  most  frequent  seats  of  necrosis  is 
the  pastern  bones  in  cases  of  foul.  In  cases  of  ostitis 
poultices  should  be  applied,  and  the  parts  freely  fomented 
and  as  thoroughly  rested  as  possible.  Besides  a  laxative 
dose  no  constitutional  treatment  is  generally  required. 

Peeiositis  and  Inflammation  of  the  Outer  Lamina  of 
A  Bone  result  from  injury  and,  occasionally,  from  rheu- 
matism. The  membrane  becomes  thickened,  and  some- 
times much  congested,  and  an  exudation  of  lymph  beneath 
it  occurs,  which  becomes  converted  into  bone.  The  pro- 
cess is  painful,  and  sometimes  requires  to  be  relieved  by 
■periosteotomy.  This  operation  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  used  in  cattle  practice.  A  case  of  diffused  meta- 
tarsal periostitis,  by  Professor  Walley,  may  be  read  in  the 
^Veterinary  Journal,'  1880,  vol.  i^  126.  It  was  a  com- 
plication of  arthritis  of  the  hock  and  fetlock,  and  led  to 
encasement  of  the  upper  three  fourths  of  the  metatarsus 
by  a  bony  layer.  Chronic  cases  of  ostitis  and  periostitis 
are  sometimes  benefited  by  a  blister. 

Exostosis — Bony  Growth  from  Bone — results  in  most 
cases  from  periostitis.  In  the  first  place  it  is  simply 
lymphy  material  thrown  out,  but  later  earthy  matter  is  de- 
posited in  it,  and  this  in  process  of  time  becomes  converted 
into  true  bone.  Callus  thrown  out  round  a  fracture  has 
much  the  same  nature,  but  is  specially  arranged  in  relation 
to  the  injured  bone.  The  most  remarkable  growths  of  this 
nature  seen  in  the  ox  are  those  dense  outgrowths  from  the 
petrous  temporal  bone  which  extend  into  the  cranial 
cavity  and  cause  absorption  of  the  brain ;  they  attain  an 
immense  size  and  weight,  and  become  closely  moulded 
against  the  cranial  walls  in  such  a  way  that  often  they 
present  a  lobulated  appearance,  and  have  ramifying  grooves 


400  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

upon  their  surface  for  blood-vessels.  Hence,  they  have 
been  mistakenly  described  as  "  ossified  brains/^  Strange 
to  say,  such  cases  are  seen  in  animals  in  good  condition 
brought  for  slaughter,  no  special  signs  of  disorder  having 
been  noticed  in  connection  with  them.  Bony  growths 
are  not  infrequent,  too,  around  the  margin  of  the  orbit, 
dependent  on  periostitis,  the  result  of  injury.  They  some- 
times attain  such  a  size  as  to  require  to  be  removed  with 
a  saw.  Sometimes  they  bend  inwards  and  exert  pressure 
on  the  eyeball,  and  they  are  always  rather  liable  to  injury, 
which  causes  ulceration.  Small  or  large  bony  tumours 
are  sometimes  found  on  the  ribs,  extending  into  the  thorax. 
Once  exostoses  have  assumed  the  true  bony  character 
they  will  remain  as  part  of  the  body  whatever  treatment 
may  be  adopted.  The  application  of  blisters  will  promote 
absorption  of  any  surrounding  deposit.  Cases  of  this 
kind  seldom  require  treatment. 

Osteophytes,  or  bony  growths,  result  from  ossification  of 
exudates  or  of  fibrous  tissue.  They  are  distinguished 
from  exostoses  by  not  being  attached  to  bone. 

Feagilitas  ossium  is  a  condition  in  which,  through 
excess  of  earthy  matter,  produced  either  by  too  great 
removal  of  animal  constituents  (as  seen  in  old  age,  and  as 
a  result  of  inflammation),  or,  less  frequently,  by  excessive 
earthy  deposit,  the  bones  readily  break.  Under  this 
heading  must  be  recorded  the  disease  known  as  Cachexia 
ossifraga  malacia,  which  was  especially  noticed  in  the 
'  Edinburgh  Veterinary  Keview,^  vol.  iii,  pp.  16,  75,  and 
223,  and  also  treated  of  in  the  'Americali  Veterinary 
Journal,'  May,  1852.  It  is  vulgarly  known  as  '^Cripple'' 
or  "  Stiffness,^'  and  is  enzootic  in  certain  situations,  and 
affects  especially  milch  cows.  It  is  attributed  to  the  non- 
assimilation  of  phosphatic  material,  or  its  excessive  re- 
moval from  the  system  in  milk.  A  deficiency  of  phosphates 
in  the  soil  is  considered  the  main  cause,  and  over-stocking 
land  is  likely  to  give  rise  to  it. 

Symptoms. — Indigestion,  with  progressive  debility,  stiff- 
ness of  gait  and  staggering.  Later,  inability  to  rise,  swell- 
ing  of   the  bones,  especially  at  the  joints,  and  paralysis. 


THE    SKELETON.  401 

These  cases  are  long  and  tedious,  and  require  to  be  treated 
by  change  to  full  and  highly  nutritious  diet,  a  mild 
laxative  to  empty  the  alimentary  canal,  and  subsequently 
mineral  tonics. 

Post-mortem  examination  shows  ligaments  torn  away 
from  their  attachments,  bones  enlarged,  friable,  and  pre- 
senting outgrowths.  Fractures  also  are  generally  present. 
This  disease  is  similar  in  many  of  its  characters  to  "  Osteo- 
porosis ''  as  seen  in  the  horse,  but  differs  in  the  presence 
of  friable  tumours  and  in  the  considerable  alteration  in 
shape  which  the  bones  undergo.  Whether  these  are  the 
same  disease  is  a  matter  of  importance,  for  Osteoporosis  has 
been  described  as  affecting  the  ox  by  Professor  Williams, 
who  says,  "  Cattle  reared  on  bad,  ill- drained  land,  poorly 
kept  in  the  winter,  grazed  on  sterile  upland  pastures 
during  dry  summers,  or  otherwise  ill-used,  are  liable  to  be 
affected  with  it.^-*  This  matter  must  be  settled  by  micro- 
scopical examination  of  the  bones. 

Kachitis — Uickets — is  an  imperfection  of  bones  seen  in 
young  animals,  and  essentially  dependent  on  the  non- 
deposition  of  sufficient  earthy  matter  in  the  ossifying  tissue, 
which  therefore  yields  to  the  superincumbent  weight. 
This  depends  on  imperfect  nutritive  supply  or  mal-assi- 
milation,  and  is  not  infrequently  associated  with  the 
scrofulous  diathesis.  As  seen  in  calves  it  is  characterised 
by  enlargement  of  the  joints,  a  bent  condition  of  the 
limbs,  especially  below  the  knee  and  the  hock.  Also,  it 
is  almost  invariably  accompanied  by  indigestion  and 
diarrhoea.  It  is  first  manifested  when  the  animal  is  a  few 
weeks  old,  and  can  be  sometimes  traced  to  imperfect 
supply  of  milk ;  in  other  cases  it  may  be  associated  with 
lesions  of  the  nervous  system. 

Treatment. — Careful  nursing,  nutritious  and  digestible 
diet,  cod-liver  oil  and  lime  water,  mineral  and  vegetable 
tonics.  The  medicinal  agents  should  be  given  in  milk.  The 
bent  portions  of  the  limb  may  be  supported  by  properly 
applied  splints  on  the  convex  surfaces.  As  the  animal 
grows  older  the  bones  will  become  hardened,  but  will 
remain  deformed. 

26 


402  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

A  degneration  of  the  gastrocnemii  tendons  has  been 
seen  in  young  cattle. 

Fractures — solutions  of  continuity  of  the  hard  struc- 
tures of  the  body — are  simple,  compound,  or  comminuted. 
A  fracture  is  simple  when  there  is  a  breaking  into  two 
parts ;  when  several  fragments  are  formed  it  is  commi- 
nuted ;  and  it  is  compound  when  there  is  a  communication 
with  the  surface  through  a  wound  and  sometimes  pro- 
trusion of  a  portion  of  bone.  When  one  of  the  long 
bones  of  the  extremity  is  the  seat  (they  are  the  most 
frequent)  the  fracture  may  be  longitudinal,  transverse,  or 
oblique.  The  latter  are  the  easiest  to  set,  but  the  most 
difficult  to  retain  in  position,  and  their  sharp  ends  are  apt 
to  pierce  the  skin  and  to  convert  a  simple  fracture  into  a 
compound  one,  which  is  not  at  all  satisfactory,  since  ex- 
posure to  the  air  excites  suppuration,  and  materially 
delays  repair.  Transverse  fractures  are  difficult  to  set, 
but  easy  to  retain  in  position ;  longitudinal  are  least  liable 
to  displacement.  When  the  bone  is  in  a  comminuted 
condition,  it  requires  to  throw  off  all  portions  of  which 
the  nutritive  supply  is  cut  on,  and  to  unite  together  the 
remaining  fragments.  Reunion  of  a  fractured  bone  results 
from  the  calcification  and  subsequent  ossification  of  lymph, 
which  is  thrown  out  around  the  fracture  and  forms  the 
interior  callus,  a  plug  inside  the  bone;  the  intervening 
situated  between  the  fractured  surfaces,  and  the  ensheath- 
ing  around  the  parts,  binding  them  together.  The  callus 
after  a  time  almost  disappears,  and  but  little  trace  of  the 
fracture  of  the  bone  is  visible.  Rest  is  essential  to  the 
proper  performance  of  these  processes,  otherwise  simply  a 
lymphy  bond  of  union  between  the  fragments  may  be 
formed,  constituting  the  condition  known  as  '^  false  joint.^' 
Certain  minor  details  of  the  process  of  repair  have  not 
been  touched  upon,  such  as  the  rounding  off  of  sharp 
projections  and  the  establishment  of  cancellated  and 
compact  tissues  continuous  with  one  another. 

Symptoms  of  Fracture. — The  principal  symptoms  are 
deformities  and  pain  of  the  part,  interference  with  its 
function,  crepitation  when  on  manipulation  the  extremities 


THE    SKELETON.  403 

are  rubbed  together.  Soon  swelling  sets  in  and  renders 
diagnosis  obscure. 

Treatment  comprises  restoration  of  tbe  fragments  to 
their  natural  position,  and  maintaining  them  there  in  a 
state  of  rest  until  union  has  been  completed.  This  takes 
over  a  month,  so  that  such  cases  are  rather  serious  ones 
to  take  in  hand.  ^^  Setting  the  bone,^^  can  best  be 
effected  by  extension  and  counter-extension,  but  the 
details  must  vary  with  the  part  affected.  Eetention  may 
be  accomplished  by  bandages,  compresses,  or  splints ; 
the  latter  are  made  of  leather,  gutta  percha  (warmed  in 
hot  water),  or  some  other  soft  yielding  substance,  and 
must  not  be  bound  on  too  closely,  but  allowance  made  for 
the  swelling  which  will  ensue.  These  are  retained  in 
position  by  a  starch  bandage,  which  gives  even  pressure ; 
depressions  below  the  splints  must  be  padded  in  such  a 
way  as  to  secure  this.  A  pitch-plaster  is  useful  in  some 
cases  where  splints  and  bandages  cannot  be  applied.  To 
secure  as  much  rest  as  possible  the  patient  should  be 
housed  and  allowed  a  good  bed  and  regular  laxative  diet. 
Of  particular  fractures  we  may  specify — 

Fracture  of  the  Horns, — It  is  often  seen,  especially  in 
young  animals  which  have  been  fighting.  The  horn  core  may 
be  fractured  transversely  without  injury  of  the  horn ;  the 
latter  then  will  act  as  splints.  When  both  core  and  horn 
have  been  broken  off,  haemorrhage  will  be  profuse,  and 
must  be  restrained  by  pressure,  or,  if  necessary,  by  the 
actual  cautery.  The  opening  extending  into  the  frontal 
sinuses  must  then  be  covered  with  a  tarred  cloth,  which 
must  not  be  bound  on  too  closely,  or  it  may  give  rise  to 
exostotic  growth  from  the  exposed  bone  as  in  a  case  before 
us,  where  the  tumour  measures  about  two  feet  ten  inches 
in  longitudinal  circumference,  and  weighs  about  five 
pounds.  Anything  of  this  kind  must  be  removed  with 
a  saw.  An  imperfect  horny  covering  will,  in  due  time, 
invest  the  exposed  extremity. 

Fracture  of  the  Metacarpal  or  Metatarsal  Bone, 
when  compound  or  comminuted,  may  be  treated  by 
amputation,  performed  as  recommended  for  foul. 


404  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

Fracture  of  the  Os  Innominatum  may  be  througli  tlie 
acetabulum,  when,  if  the  animal  is  at  all  in  condition,  it 
should  he  killed  for  the  butcher.  The  same  rule  applies 
to  fractures  of  the  more  serious  kind  involving  joints,  or 
penetrating  cavities  in  any  part  of  the  body.  Animals 
rushing  through  doors,  over  landing  stages,  or  through 
gates  which  shut  on  them,  are  liable  to  fracture  of  the 
antero-inferior  spinous  process  of  the  ilium ;  this  never 
unites,  but  a  false  joint  forms,  and  the  animal  remains 
permanently  deformed,  ^^  ragged  ''  or  ''  hipped,^'  as  it  is 
termed. 

Fractures  of  the  Bihs  may  lead  to  passage  of  the  frag- 
ments inwards  and  laceration  of  the  lung  or  to  pleurisy. 

Fractures  of  the  Granium  are  seldom  seen  in  cattle,  and 
not  likely  to  compress  the  brain,  for  the  plates  of  bone  of 
the  cranium  are  separated  almost  everywhere  by  the 
frontal  sinuses,  so  that  the  outer  gives  way  without  the 
inner. 

Fractures  of  young  animals  unite  more  readily  than 
those  of  the  adult ;  in  them  we  occasionally  see  cases 
of  partial  fracture,  fracture  with  bending,  or  greenstich 
fracture,  and  apparent  fracture  may  be  due  simply  to 
separation  of  epiphyses,  especially  those  of  the  olecranon 
and  of  the  summit  of  the  process  of  os  calcis.  In  such 
cases  there  is  flexure  of  the  limb  at  the  hock  or  the 
elbow,  generally  a  hard  tumour  above  the  joints  of  these 
parts,  and  a  thickened  condition  of  the  muscles  higher 
up.  In  such  cases  the  limbs  must  be  forcibly  kept 
straightened  for  a  considerable  time,  and  an  attempt  must 
be  made  to  bring  the  separated  parts  in  apposition,  and 
maintain  them  there.      Such  cases  are  troublesome. 

As  in  other  lower  animals,  the  difficulty  in  treatment 
of  fractures  in  the  ox  consists  in  our  inability  to  keep  the 
patient  quite  quiet  and  at  rest.  Again,  we  cannot  satis- 
factorily use  slings  for  him  as  we  would  for  the  horse 
for  they  too  much  compress  the  abdominal  viscera  and 
interfere  with  digestion.  Still,  we  do  not  require 
such  accurate   and  perfect    union    in  the    ox  as   in  the 


THE    SKELETON.  405 

horse.     Altogether  treatment  of  the  majority  of  cases  is 
indicated. 


Section  2. — Injueies   and    Diseases    of    Ligaments   and 

Muscles. 

Sprain  is  rupture  of  some  of  the  fibres  of  a  ligament  or 
tendon.  When  all  give  way  simultaneously  we  have  to 
do  with  complete  rupture  of  a  white  fibrous  band,  thus, 
these  conditions  so  often  described  separately  are  simply 
one  and  the  same,  but  the  latter  is  an  exaggeration  of  the 
former.  Eeparative  inflammation  is  set  up  and  thus  the 
parts  become  hard,  swollen,  hot  and  painful,  and  there  is 
a  want  of  free  movement  of  the  tendon.  Over-tension 
of  some  kind  is  the  cause  of  this  state,  as  when  an 
animal  progressing  rapidly  steps  in  a  deep  hole,  catches 
its  foot  in  any  place,  or  bears  its  weight  improperly  on 
the  limb.  Of  course  the  tendons  of  the  limbs  are  most 
frequently  the  seat  of  this  lesion.  Generally  some  amount 
of  thickening  remains  after  recovery. 

Treatment  comprises  thorough  rest,  not  only  by  keep- 
ing the  patient  quiet,  but  sometimes  by  placing  the  limb  in 
a  favorable  posture.  In  the  early  stages  warm  water 
may  be  used  to  relax  the  parts  and  lessen  pain,  but 
when  possible,  cold  water  may  be  continuously  applied, 
whereby  tendency  to  excessive  deposit  will  be  prevented  ; 
and  also  there  will  be  a  certain  amount  of  local  anaesthesia 
produced ;  unless  the  application  be  continuous,  it  may  as 
well  be  left  alone.  When  all  heat  has  subsided  in  the 
part  it  will  be  advisable  to  complete  the  repair  by  the 
stimulating  action  of  a  blister  or  even  of  the  actual 
cautery. 

Sprain  of  the  Fetlock  Joint  is  perhaps  the  most  frequent 
lesion  of  this  nature.  It  depends  upon  excessive  diver- 
gence of  the  digits,  and  here  mainly  falls  the  stress  of  all 
the  weight  thrown  upon  the  limb.  This  form  of  injury 
is  most  frequent  in  working  oxen,  and  presents  nothing 
special  in  its  course  and  treatment  except  that  it  is  liable 


406  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

to  be  accompanied  by  arthritis  and  to  result  in  false 
anchylosis  of  the  joint.  The  sheaths  of  the  tendons 
about  this  part  always  undergo  thickening  in  such  cases. 
Sometimes  the  inflammation  runs  so  high  as  to  give  rise 
to  considerable  systemic  disorder^  so  that  a  cathartic 
and  febrifuge  agents  must  be  administered.  Overgrowth 
of  the  hoofs,  by  giving  rise  to  abnormal  direction  of 
tension,  predisposes  to  this  injury. 

Sprain  of  Ligamentum  Teres  of  the  Hip  is  seen  in  the 
ox,  for  he  has  no  pubio-femoral  ligament  to  strengthen 
the  union  of  the  head  of  the  femur  with  the  acetabulum. 
Armatage  gives  the  following  symptoms  : — Flexion  of  the 
affected  limb  during  rest  and  drooping  of  the  haunch  of 
that  side.  Inability  to  raise  the  thigh  and  advance  the 
leg,  so  that  the  hoof  is  dragged  along  the  ground.  Great 
pain  on  movement  of  the  limb,  absence  of  external  in- 
dications, and  in  chronic  cases,  wasting  of  the  quarter, 
with  a  clicking  noise  during  progression.  The  most 
frequent  cause  of  this  is  beasts  ^'mounting''  on  one 
another,  but  blows  may  also  give  rise  to  it.  Abscess 
in  the  hip-joint  may  result.  These  cases  are  not  rare, 
and  prove  severe  and  protracted,  and  seriously  interfere 
with  condition.  The  ordinary  treatment  for  sprain  must 
be  tried ;  in  chronic  cases  a  seton  may  prove  useful. 
Above  all  things  thorough  rest  must  be  secured ;  this 
ligament  has  been  found  ruptured. 

A  case  of  Ruptured  Suspensory  Ligament  may  be  read  in 
the  '  Veterinarian,^  vol.  xvi,  p.  254.  This  ligament  divides 
inferiorly  into  four  in  the  ox  and  assists  the  perforatus 
to  form  its  sheaths  for  perforans. 

The  muscular  system  of  the  ox  is  less  liable  to  injury 
and  disorder  than  that  of  the  horse,  since  the  tendons 
are  seldom  subject  to  excessive  strain,  and  the  animal  is 
not  compelled  to  undergo  excessive  muscular  exertion. 
Yet,  as  a  result  of  over-feeding,  the  muscles  degenerate, 
undergoing  fatty  change,  and  are  liable  to  give  way 
under  the  influence  of  a  comparatively  slight  degree  of 
force.     Of   this  nature  is  the  Rupture  of  serratus  magnus, 


THE    SKELETON.  407 

which  gives  rise  to  excessive  and  sudden  lameness  when 
heavy  fat  cattle  are  made  to  travel  any  distance. 

Displacement  of  the  A  hdudor  femoris  has  been  described 
by  some  authors.  It  gives  rise  to  hip  lameness,  with 
a  dragging  of  the  limb  and  imperfect  flexion.  Incision 
through  the  investing  fascia  is  necessary  to  free  the 
muscle.  It  is  seen  in  working  cattle  and  in  mountainous 
districts. 

In  muscles  certain  parasites  take  up  their  abode.  Of 
these  the  most  important  are  the  Trichina  and  Cysticerci. 
These  have,  in  this  country,  only  been  found  in  the  ox  as 
a  result  of  experimental  investigation.  It  seems  probable 
that  the  Cysticercus  hovis  frequently  occurs  in  the  flesh  of 
cattle  in  India  and  other  warm  climates.  Certain  psoro- 
sperms,  very  low  organisms  belonging  to  the  Gregarinidae, 
have  been  found  in  the  flesh  of  oxen.  These  have  been 
described  as  cattle-plague  bodies  —  '^  Miescher's^^  or 
"  E-ainey's^^  bodies — are  detectable  under  high  powers,  and 
have  no  clinical  importance.  They  are  found  in  healthy 
as  well  as  diseased  animals. 

Sometimes  wounds  lay  open  synovial  tendinous  sheaths. 
The  lining  membrane  exposed  to  the  air  becomes 
thickened  and  discharges  largely,  manifesting  all  the 
signs  of  acute  inflammation.  The  continuous  application 
of  cold  water  seems  to  be  the  best  means  which  can  be 
adopted. 

Section  3. — Abnoemalities  of  the  Joints. 

The  various  affections  of  the  joints  are  not  so  frequent 
in  the  ox  as  in  the  horse.  We  may  enumerate  the 
following : 

Aethkitis — Inflammation  of  a  Joint — generally  depends 
upon  rheumatism  or  scrofula,  or  arsenical-fume  poisoning, 
but  sometimes  is  simple  and  due  to  ostitis,  or  punctured 
wounds  or  bruises.  The  specific  affections  have  been 
already  noticed  and  compared.  Traumatic  arthritis  causes 
ulceration  of  the  extremities  of  the  bones,  which  produces 
ulceration  of  the  articular  surfaces,  with  sometimes  loose 


408  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

portions  of  bone ;  also  a  distended  condition  of  tlie  joint 
cavity,  with  the  ordinary  local  signs  of  inflammation,  the 
swelling  being  particularly  hard.  Fever  is  apt  to  run 
high,  and  when  the  diseased  joint  is  in  one  of  the  limbs 
lameness  is  intense.  The  discharge  through  the  puncture 
is  at  first  profuse ;  subsequently  it  becomes  flocculent,  and 
sometimes  sanguineous. 

Results. — Of  these  anchylosis  is  the  most  frequent  unto- 
ward condition ;  to  it  all  these  cases  tend.  It  is  nature's 
method  of  cure  of  the  disorganised  joint  by  establishing 
bony  connection  between  its  constituent  portions^  and  thus 
entirely  obliterating  its  cavity. 

The  best  treatment  in  such  cases  is  to  secure  as  much 
rest  of  the  parts  as  possible,  and  to  endeavour  to  close  the 
wound  before  inflammation  is  excited  in  the  joint.  This 
may  sometimes  be  done  by  adhesives  or  sutures.  When 
admissible,  of  course  the  wound  must  be  thoroughly 
cleansed.  Later  cold  water  must  be  applied  continuously, 
which  will  allow  only  enough  inflammatory  action  for  re- 
parative purposes.  More  recently  the  application  of  a 
smart  blister  around  the  joint  has  been  found  to  be  very 
successful,  since  it  serves  to  limit  motion  and  close  up 
the  wound  by  the  swelling  it  causes.  Severe  constitu- 
tional irritation  may  occur  in  these  cases.  Even  where 
anchylosis  has  resulted  the  patient  will  probably  be  able 
to  get  sufficient  food  to  fatten  himself ;  thus,  we  may  deem 
a  cure  of  this  nature  fairly  satisfactory  in  the  ox,  whereas 
it  would  prove  useless  in  the  horse.  Remarkable  cases  of 
arthritis  are  those  seen  in  ^^  copper- smoke  disease.^' 

The  Stifle-joint  is  very  liable  to  injury  from  blows, 
bruises,  and  other  traumatic  influences.  The  affected 
limb  is  raised  from  the  ground,  and  there  are  fluctuating 
swellings,  due  to  accumulations  of  synovia  in  the  joints. 
Weight  on  the  limb  causes  extreme  pain,  and  the  animal 
will  not  lie  down,  or  when  recumbent  can  scarcely  rise. 
Sometimes  these  cases  last  a  very  long  time. 

Hydrops  Articulorum — Dropsy  of  Joints — results  either 
from  inflammation,  or  as  a  result  of  constitutional  or  local 
debility.      It  is  seen  most  frequently  in  young  animals  when 


THE    SKELETON.  409 

it  is  due  to  tlie  latter  causes.  It  is  not  frequent  in 
cattle. 

Treatment. — Subdue  any  inflammation  present,  then 
paint  with  tincture  of  iodine,  or  apply  friction  and  give 
tonics. 

Synovitis — Inflammation  of  a  Synovial  Memhrane — 
occurs  whenever  it  is  exposed  to  the  air,  as  in  open  joint, 
bursa,  or  sheath,  and  is  a  complication  of  tendinous  inflam- 
mations. It  leads  to  the  throwing  out  of  lymph  and  adhe- 
sions, which  impede  free  movements  of  tendons  in  the  case 
of  sheaths  and  bursas.  The  membrane  undergoes  the 
various  stages  of  congestion,  with  dryness,  thickening 
from  interstitial  effusion,  and  lymphy  exudation  ;  and  there 
is  considerable  pain,  and  fever  runs  high. 

Treatment  comprises  active  antiphlogistic  means.  The 
most  important  point  is  to  prevent  extension  of  inflamma- 
tion to  the  neighbouring  cartilages. 

Other  diseased  conditions  of  the  structure  of  the  skeleton 
are  of  minor  importance,  and  will  present  no  difficulties  to 
the  scientific  practitioner. 

Eelaxation  op  the  Pelvic  Symphysis  has  been  seen  in 
cows  after  parturition. 

Dislocations  or  Luxations  are  misplacements  of  joint 
surfaces,  to  allow  of  which  some  of  the  retaining  ligaments 
have  given  way.  This  leads  to  deformity,  interference 
with  function,  and  subsequently  to  changes  of  the  articular 
surfaces  in  the  direction  of  an  adaptation  of  the  parts  to 
their  new  situations.  Thus,  cartilage  is  removed,  promi- 
nences are  levelled,  and  new  depressions  are  formed,  and 
condensed  bony  tissue  to  a  certain  extent  replaces  the 
articular  cartilage  (eburnation),  and  receives  a  polish. 
These  displacements  depend  upon  some  irregular  action  of 
muscles  or  force  applied  to  the  surface;  they  are  most 
frequent  in  young  animals  with  delicate  ligaments  and 
only  partially  developed  articular  surfaces. 

Treatment  comprises  reduction  of  the  dislocation,  reten- 
tion of  the  parts  in  their  natural  position,  and  artificial 
strengthening  of  parts.  Hip-joint  and  patella  dislocation 
are  the  forms  of  this  lesion  most  frequently  seen  in  cattle 


410 


BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 


practice.     The  former  lesion  is  seldom  unaccompanied  by 
fracture  of  the  acetabulum. 


Fig.  79. — Dislocation  of  the  patella.     (Armatage.) 

Dislocation  of  the  Patella  is  the  most  frequent  luxation 
in  cattle,  and  is  almost  always  outwards,  so  that  the  bone 


Fig.  80.— Means  for  preventing  recurrence  of  dislocation  of  the  patella. 
(Armatage.) 

may  sometimes  be  distinguished  as  a  hard  tumour  outside 
of  its  normal  position.  The  limb  is  drawn  and  maintained 
forcibly  backwards  in  a  manner  which  cannot  be  mistaken. 
Reduction  must  be  attempted  by  drawing  the  limb  for- 
wards by  a  hobble  round  the  fetlock,  with  a  rope  attached 


THE    SKELETON.  411 

to  it,  and  connected  with  a  band  passed  round  the  neck, 
at  the  same  time  pressure  inwards  is  brought  to  bear  on 
the  displaced  bone,  which  will  probably  easily  slip  back 
into  its  position.  The  limb  should  be  kept  forwards  by 
tying  the  hobble  rope  to  the  neck  band,  and  a  blister  may 
be  applied  over  the  stifle  to  excite  effusion  as  a  means  of 
retention,  for  sometimes  this  dislocation  is  recurrent,  and 
the  patella,  constantly  passing  out  of  and  into  position, 
causes  absorption  of  the  outer  ridge  of  the  femur,  and  still 
further  aggravates  the  case,  and  renders  it  incurable. 
The  immediate  causes  are  slipping  of  the  limb  backwards, 
as  into  a  ditch,  and  want  of  tone  of  the  surrounding 
muscles.  It  is  said  to  be  most  frequent  in  mountainous 
districts. 


412  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


CHAPTER  X.— WOUNDS  AND  OTHER  SURGICAL 
CONDITIONS. 

Section  1, 

Wounds  are  solutions  of  the  continuity  of  the  superficial 
soft  parts  of  the  animal  body,  extending  more  or  less  deeply 
into  other  structures.  They  generally  result  from  violence 
or  other  form  of  injury  applied  from  without,  and  vary 
with  the  nature  of  the  cause.      Thus  : 

Incised  Wounds  are  cleanly  cut  with  straight  edges,  a 
tendency  to  bleed  profusely,  and  to  heal  readily.  They 
are  simple  separations  of  parts  of  a  tissue  from  one  another, 
and  hence  can  be  sometimes  repaired  by  simply  bringing 
the  parts  again  into  apposition. 

Punctured  Wounds  result  from  forcible  contact  with 
some  penetrating  instrument,  which  may  break  and  leave 
a  portion  of  its  substance  in  the  depths  of  the  wound. 
The  body,  in  the  course  of  its  entry,  either  cleanly  cuts  its 
way  or  lacerates  the  tissues  through  which  it  passes  ;  in 
the  latter  case  healing  is  least  readily  brought  about,  but 
this  is  not  of  much  importance,  for  such  wounds  must  heal 
at  the  bottom  first,  and  if  union  prematurely  occur  near 
the  surface  accumulation  of  liquid  products  may  give  rise 
to  inconvenience  and  retard  the  healing  process.  It  is 
principally  in  wounds  of  this  kind  that  we  find  serous 
cavities  and  joints  penetrated  ;  serious  complications  being 
not  of  rare  occurrence. 

Lacerated  Wounds  result  from  bluntness  of  the  injuring 
body  and  moderate  force,  whereby  the  tissues  are  torn, 
their  elasticity  exceeded,  and  destruction  of  material  along 
the  course  of  the  instrument  brought  about.  There  is 
seldom  much  haemorrhage  in  these  cases,  but  the  ragged 
ends  of  the  tissue  require  to  be  removed  by  sloughing,  and 


WOUNDS  413 

the  retraction  of  the  parts  generally  leaves  a  large  exposed 
surface. 

Contused  Wounds  are  those  in  which,  besides  a  cut,  con- 
siderable bruising  of  surrounding  parts  results  from  in- 
jury with  a  blunt  instrument,  or  contact  with  a  hard,  irre- 
gular surface.  The  bruise  renders  the  case  much  more 
complex  than  it  otherwise  would  be,  for,  besides  simple 
repair  of  the  cut,  much  tissue  must  be  removed  or  re- 
stored. A  similar  condition  without  the  cut  is  termed  a 
contusion,  and  is  less  serious,  as  reparative  changes  take 
place  most  readily  without  access  of  the  air.  The  blood 
thrown  out  in  this  latter  case  forms  a  hamatoma  or  blood 
tumour.  The  clot  which  is  formed  does  not  undergo 
organisation,  at  any  rate  as  a  rule,  but  becomes  slowly 
absorbed. 

Poisoned  Wounds  show  a  tendency  to  gangrenous 
results,  and  heal  very  badly ;  they  are  not  frequent  in 
cattle. 

Gunshot  Wounds  require  no  detailed  notice  from  us. 
The  methods  by  which  repair  is  brought  about  are  as  fol- 
lows : — Repair  by  growth,  where  no  reparative  processes 
are  set  up,  but  the  injury  has  not  been  sufficient  to  dis- 
arrange the  relations  between  the  cells,  so  in  process  of 
time  the  space  left  is  filled  up ;  ^primary  union,  where  the 
parts,  being  brought  together  at  once  after  the  wound, 
become  united  without  any  mark  of  injury  being  left ;  the 
two  surfaces  are  so  grafted  together  that  the  necessary  in- 
fluences of  neighbouring  tissues  may  be  exerted  between 
them ;  jprimary  adhesion  occurs  when  two  exposed  surfaces 
are  brought  together  some  little  time  after  the  injury,  and 
maintained  in  apposition,  union  being  the  result  of  the  ad- 
hesive influence  of  lymphy  material  on  each  surface ; 
repair  by  granulation  is  the  most  frequent  method  ;  in  this 
the  exposed  surface,  after  haemorrhage  has  ceased,  seems 
to  be  covered  with  a  glaze,  which  is  the  adhesive  material, 
simply  thrown-out  by  the  blood-vessels;  this  becomes 
covered  with  little,  highly  vascular,  minute  projections, 
resembling  papillae  in  their  figure ;  also  pus  is  formed  at 
about  this   time.      The  wound  is   gradually  closed  by  the 


414  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

growth  and  aggregation  of  successive  crops  of  these  pro- 
cesses, which  are  termed  granulations ;  they  consist  of 
granulation  tissue,  which  is  at  first  composed  solely  of 
leucocytes,  either  united  by  soft  fibrinous  intercellular 
substance,  or  aggregated  longitudinally  around  certain 
capillary  loops,  which  are  shooting  into  the  new  tissue 
from  the  blood-vessels  of  the  nearest  uninjured  part.  As  a 
fresh  outpouring  of  leucocytes  occurs  those  nearest  the 
surface  escape  as  pus,  and  those  deeply  situated  become 
new  tissue.  The  skin  surrounding  the  wound  is  stretched 
over  it  to  the  utmost  extent  of  its  yielding,  and  the  part  of 
the  surface  still  uncovered  is  closed  in  by  a  growth  of  epi- 
thelial cells,  which  takes  place  from  the  nearest  cutis,  or 
sometimes  from  some  generating  centres  in  the  granula- 
tion tissue  on  the  surface  of  the  wound.  This  process  of 
completing  repair  is  termed  cicatrisation.  Union  by 
granulation  is  slow,  taxes  the  strength,  and  its  newly- 
formed  tissue  is  liable  to  become  the  seat  of  degenerations. 
Sometimes  healing  under  a  scab  takes  place ;  it  is  granu- 
lation without  access  of  the  air,  whereby  all  the  leucocytic 
material  can  be  utilised  for  granulation,  and  none  is  lost 
as  pus.  The  scab  is  formed  by  the  discharges  of  the 
wound,  which  have  dried  and  entangled  other  matters  with 
them  to  form  a  hard  layer. 

Adhesion  of  Granulations  may  be  brought  about  by 
binding  together  of  two  granulating  surfaces,  whereby 
organic  continuity  is  induced. 

In  the  treatment  of  wounds  the  first  indication  is  to 
chech  hcemorrhage,  if  present.  This  may  be  arterial  or 
venous.  When  not  very  profuse  it  will  not  require  special 
measures,  but  sometimes  it  persists  long  enough  to  debili- 
tate the  patient,  and  even  produce  syncope.  Arterial 
haemorrhage  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  incision  or 
wound  of  the  artery.  When  an  artery  is  completely 
divided  it  retracts  into  its  sheath,  and  also  contracts,  and 
thus  impediment  to  haemorrhage  is  brought  about,  except 
when  the  vessel  is  a  large  one.  Partial  division  may  be 
longitudinal  or  transverse ;  in  the  latter  case  the  haemor- 
rhage will  be  greater,  for  the  wound  gapes.      Persistent 


WOUNDS.  416 

haemorrliage  results  from  oblique  imperfect  division  of 
the  arterial  coats.  Arterial  haemorrliage  differs  from 
venous,  in  that  the  blood  is  pumped  out  in  jerks  and  of  a 
bright  scarlet  colour,  and  the  flow  is  promptly  lessened  by- 
pressure  on  the  course  of  the  artery  of  supply  to  the  injured 
part.  Venous  hasmorrhage  depends  upon  wounds  of  various 
kinds,  but  these  are  less  important  in  their  effects  than 
those  of  arteries,  on  account  of  the  smaller  pressure  in  the 
veins,  whence  haemorrhage  is  less  difficult  to  control,  and 
also  the  blood  which  escapes  being  impure,  its  loss  is  less 
felt  by  the  system. 

When  an  artery  has  been  partially  divided  complete 
division  generally  suffices  to  check  haemorrhage.  In 
other  cases  pressure  will  prove  useful.  This  is  applied 
along  the  course  of  the  artery  between  the  heart  and  the 
seat  of  injury ;  torsion  also  is  a  very  useful  means,  as  it 
places  the  coats  of  the  vessel  on  the  stretch  in  a  spiral 
manner,  until  they  give  way,  and  the  jagged  edges  thus 
produced  recoil,  and  plug  up  the  orifice  of  the  vessel  (see 
figs.  35,  36,  p.  222).  LigaUires  must  sometimes  be  tried, 
and  tied  with  sufficient  force  to  rupture  the  middle  and  inner 
coats  of  the  artery,  for  these  retracting  will  lessen  the  lia- 
bility to  secondary  haemorrhage  when  the  ligature  separates. 
Application  of  the  Actual  Cautery  to  a  bleeding  wound 
is  a  rough  but  effectual  method,  and  in  our  patients,  less 
under  supervision  than  human  beings,  is  specially  called 
for  when  it  is  necessary  to  leave  the  patient  to  himself 
after  the  operation.  Hsemostatic  agents  administered  in- 
ternally (such  as  tannic  and  gallic  acids)  are  seldom  re- 
quired. Styptics,  as  the  chloride  of  iron  and  various 
caustics,  are  sometimes  very  useful.  Cold  water  is,  per- 
haps, the  best  of  these  agents.  Yenous  haemorrhage  may 
be  generally  restrained  by  pressure  over  the  wound,  or 
by  compression  of  the  veins  of  supply.  Usually  it  ceases 
spontaneously. 

Bleeding  having  been  checked  all  foreign  bodies  must 
he  removed.  This  is  a  matter  of  difficulty  in  some  cases 
of  punctured  wound,  and  it  must  be  remembered  that  not 
only  bodies  actually    foreign,  but  pieces   of  dead   tissue 


416 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


and  loose  bone  must  be  removed,  or  they  will  retard  healing. 
Any  extravasated  blood  should  also  be  extracted.  All  this 
must  be  done  by  gentle  fomentation  of  the  part,  with 
slight  manipulation,  lest  haemorrhage  recur.  Next,  nature's 
processes  must  be  assisted  as  much  as  possible,  and  in  the 
first  place  it  must  be  our  aim  as  often  as  we  can  to  pro- 
mote primary  union ;  even  if  this  be  brought  about  only 
to  a  slight  extent  the  duration  of  healing  may  be  mate- 
rially lessened. 

The  edges  of  the  wound  must  be  brought  together  by 
means  of  Sutures.      Of  these  there  are  several  kinds. 

Figure-of-eight  Suture. — Formed  by  passing  a  pin  through 
the  two  edges  of  the  wound,  and  winding  thread  round 
each  end  in  turn. 


Ik 


Fig.  81. — Pin,  or  figure-of-eight 
Buture .     (Dobson. ) 


Fig.  82. — Interrupted  suture. 
(Dobson.) 


Interrujpted. — Stitches  passed  at  intervals  through  the 
edges  of  the  wound,  and  each  tied  separately. 

Uninterrupted. — Suture  material  passed  successively  and 
continuously  several  times  through  the  edges  of  the 
wound  alternately. 

Quilled  are  semi-cylindrical  pieces  of  wood,  resting  by 
their  flat  surfaces  against  the  edges  of  the  wound,  which 
they  keep  level  and  prevent  from  tearing.  They  are 
retained  by  the  thread  sutures. 


WOUNDS.  417 

Catgut,  metal,  or  thread  are  used  for  these  sutures;  of 
them  the  first  is  best  in  almost  every  respect,  as  it  causes 
but  little,  if  any,  irritation,  and  will,  in  course  of  time, 
become  absorbed.  It  is  also  very  strong,  but  may  some- 
times require  to  be  replaced  by  the  metal  when  great 
strain  is  put  on  the  sutures.  In  large  wounds  the  many- 
tailed  bandage  is  a  useful  means  of  retaining  the  parts  in 
apposition  with  one  another. 

Of  the  methods  adopted  to  promote  healing  of  wounds, 
and  to  ward  off  ill  consequences,  the  most  remarkable  is  the 
system  of  antiseptic  surgery,  sometimes  called  "  Lis- 
terisin.''  This  consists  in  somewhat  elaborate  methods  for 
avoidance  of  contamination  qf  wounds  by  atmospheric 
germs,  which  prove  irritants,  and,  as  such,  promote  sup- 
puration. They  also  are  the  cause  of  gangrene.  Wound 
dressing  on  this  system  is  accomplished  under  a  spray  of 
carbolic  acid  and  water,  which  is  also  diffused  through  the 
atmosphere  while  the  operations  are  being  performed. 
Drainage  tubes  of  decalcified  bone  or  of  carbolised  lint  are 
so  arranged  as  to  allow  ''the  drainage  of  decomposable 
fluids  from  the  wound  without  admitting  the  entrance  to 
it  of  unfiltered  air.^'  Certainly  this  method  has  materially 
reduced  mortality  in  human  surgery,  but  the  refinements 
of  method  and  constant  supervision  necessary  render  it 
seldom  admissible  in  cattle  practice.  We,  therefore,  have 
to  resort  to  the  simpler  means  of  antiseptic  lotions  and 
stimulants,  especially  those  of  carbolic  acid,  which  keep 
off  flies,  allay  pain  and  suppuration,  and  promote  granu- 
lation. 

All  our  measures  of  treatment  must  tend  to  assist 
nature,  and  especially  to  keep  the  affected  parts  in  a  state 
of  rest.  Unless  we  can  accomplish  the  latter  object  the 
granulations  will  become  irritable,  and  the  discharge  from 
them  of  an  ichorous  character. 

Sir  William  Fergusson,  in  the  treatment  of  simple 
wounds,  preferred  cold-water  dressings,  and  their  value 
has  been  often  noted  in  veterinary  practice.  Reparation 
is  brought  about  by  salutary  inflammation,  and  unless  this 
be  interfered  with  no  treatment  will  be  required.      When, 

27 


418  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

however,  motion  between  tlie  surfaces  occurs  there  is  a 
tendency  to  excessive  irritation,  which  must  be  restrained. 
Again,  we  must  observe  that,  in  some  cases,  stimulating 
treatment  will  be  required,  either  in  consequence  of  general 
or  local  debility.  Thus,  judgment  must  be  exercised  in 
the  treatment  of  every  wound.  A  punctured  wound  run- 
ning obliquely  to  the  surface  may,  by  a  bold  slit,  be  con- 
verted into  an  incised  wound  much  more  formidable  in 
appearance,  but  which  will  heal  in  half  the  time.  In  a 
contused  wound  blood  will  often  require  to  be  freed  from 
the  tissue  spaces  into  which  it  had  escaped.  Few  matters 
in  surgery  require  more  judgment  than  the  treatment  of 
wounds. 

In  the  ox  suppuration  does  not  so  readily  occur  as  in 
the  horse,  and  the  pus,  when  formed,  is  of  a  special  odour, 
and  not  of  uniform  consistence.  Incised  wounds  are  not 
frequent  in  this  animal,  but  punctures  from  the  horns  of 
companions  are  both  frequent  and  formidable.  Lacerated 
wounds,  too,  are  often  seen,  but  the  thick  skin  of  the  ox 
acts  as  a  preventive  against  these. 

Of  the  results  of  wounds  we  may  say  that  gangrene, 
pyaemia,  and  tetanus  are  rare,  and  sympathetic  fever 
seldom  runs  high.  Punctured  wounds  of  the  abdomen 
may  lead  to  rupture  or  to  injury  of  the  bowels,  as  already 
described.  A  wound  of  the  same  nature  extending  into 
the  chest  leads  to  the  easily  repaired  laceration  of  the 
lung  and  to  pleuritis,  with  considerable  embarrassment  of 
respiration,  but  seldom  proves  fatal. 

Chronic  wounds,  fistulas,  and  the  various  kinds  of  ulcer, 
have  been  already  described  at  length. 


Section  2. — Tumours. 

Swellings  of  a  circumscribed  character  due  to  abnormal 
accumulation  of  tissue  materials  are  described  under  this 
name.  They  may  be  situated  on  the  surface  of  the  body, 
or  more  deeply,  and  are  primarily  divisible  into  malignant 
and  non-malignant. 


TUMOURS. 


419 


Suh-section  1. — Malignant  Tumours, 

The  former  essentially  depend  upon  constitutional  con- 
ditions and  exhibit  a  tendency  to  infective  distribution. 
They  are  specific   in    their   character,  and   are   commonly 

known  as  Cancers  or  Carcinomata.  We  have  had 
occasion  already  to  notice  the  cachexia  which  results 
from  constitutional  impregnation  with  cancerous  matter, 
and  have  shown  how  cancer  may  be  generated  by  a 
process  of  grafting,  so  that  local  developments  may  be 
either  the  cause  or  result  of  constitutional  conditions. 
This  local  manifestation  either  assumes  the  character  of 
an  infiltration  or  more  frequently  of  a  tumour.  The  latter 
is  less  dangerous  to  the  system  than  the  former;  its 
virulent  cells  are  confined  and  are  less  liable  to  invade 
important  organs ;  also  the  case  may  be  palliated  by 
removal  of  the  masses  of  specific  cells.  The  cachexia 
remains  in  a  scarcely  manifest  state  throughout  the  stage 
of  generation  of  the  tumours,  and  according  as  the  latter 
have  a  soft  or  a  hard  character  is  the  rapidity  of  systemic 
complication ;  when  the  swelling  begins  to  soften  the. 
infective  processes  are  in  their  greatest  activity.  Carcino- 
mata are  of  several  kinds  : 


Fig.  83. — Scirrhous  growth  from  mammary  gland,      x  200,     (After  Harley 

and  Brown.) 

SciREHus,  dense,  hard,  generally  lobulated,   consisting 


420  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

of  groups  of  cancer-cells  embedded  in  a  fibrous  stroma, 
which  is  very  plentiful.      These  are  of  slow  development. 

Colloid,  gelatinous,  adhesive,  generally  amber  yellow 
and  soft,  consisting  usually  of  but  little  stroma  and  a  great 
number  of  cells.  The  cells  separate  somewhat  freely, 
leaving  the  areolar  network  behind. 

Medullary  Saecoma  or  Encephaloid,  a  lobulated  mass 
of  brain-like  substance,  the  skin  investing  which  presents 
very  much  enlarged  veins,  consisting  of  a  more  or  less 
plentiful  stroma  with  cells  in  its  loculi. 

It  will  be  seen  that  each  of  these  forms  of  cancer  con- 
sists of  cells  in  stroma.  The  cells  are  of  a  special 
character.  They  vary  very  much  in  form  and  in  their  degree 
of  nucleation,  but  are  all  endowed  with  a  high  degree  of 
vital  activity,  which  seems  specially  exaggerated  in  the 
direction  of  reproduction.  Thus,  new  cells  are  rapidly 
produced  within  the  older  ones,  and  another  sign  of 
activity  is  the  tendency  to  migrate  ;  softening  of  the 
cancer  masses  leads  to  ulceration,  for  the  superficial 
layers  of  the  body  become  invaded  and  softened,  and  thus 
a  large  ulcer  may  be  present,  the  distinctive  characteristic 
of  which  is  the  fact  that  its  surface  is  largely  composed 
of  cancer-cells.  The  discharge  is  of  an  ichorous  or 
special  character  and  consists  of  specific  cells  ;  the  danger 
of  cancer  lies  in  this,  that  it  consists  of  special  highly 
vital  tissue,  which  grows  more  rapidly  than  other  tissues, 
and  constantly  increases  in  size,  involving  neighbouring 
parts ;  thus,  it  extends  to  the  surface  and  produces  an 
ulcer,  which  does  not  tend  to  heal,  and  it  involves  all 
tissues.  Finally,  its  constituents  are  conveyed  by  the 
lymphatics  through  the  lymph  glands,  where  a  similar 
diseased  process  results,  and  thus  the  blood  constantly 
receives  supplies  of  the  specific  cells.  We  must  not  be 
understood  to  imply  that  there  is  any  special  appearance 
of  cancer-cells  by  which  they  may  be  at  once  determined; 
their  specificity  consists  in  their  origin  and  effects ;  they 
are  frequently  quite  similar  to  normal  tissue  elements. 
The  cancerous  nature  of  a  tumour  may  generally  be 
determined  by  examination  of  a  section  of  it,  or  of  some 


TUMOURS.  421 

'^  cancer  juice ''  scraped  from  its  surface.  The  manner  of 
extension  and  any  infective  indications  will  confirm  the 
diagnosis.  These  tumours  exhibit  all  variations  in  size 
and  form  as  well  as  in  consistence. 

Causes. — These  growths  are  due  to  hereditary  influence 
and  have  been  originated  by  inoculation.  The  latter 
process  is  attended  with  much  difficulty  and  cannot  be  a 
frequent  occurrence  in  nature ;  we  must,  therefore,  con- 
sider hereditary  tendency  to  be  the  predisposition,  and  we 
find  that  mechanical  and  other  injuries  prove  excitants. 
Under  these  circumstances  we  cannot  be  surprised  that  ma- 
lignant tumours  are  less  frequent  in  the  lower  animals  than 
in  man.  Besides  the  above  enumerated  forms  of  cancer  two 
other  kinds  are  to  be  included  under  this  heading ;  they 
are  less  malignant  than  the  others,  and  sometimes  seem 
to  be  simply  local. 

Epithelioma  consists  of  freely  proliferating  epithelial 
cells  embedded  in  a  fibrous  stroma.  The  cells  present 
must  not  be  considered  truly  of  an  epithelial  nature,  but 
rather  mimic  the  cells  of  the  tissue  in  which  the  tumour 
grows,  either  the  skin  or  mucous  membrane. 

Melanosis,  sometimes  called  '^  hlach  cancer,*'  is  some- 
what similar,  but  its  cells  resemble  those  of  the  Mal- 
pighian  layer  of  the  skin  which  contain  pigment  in  the 
granular  form.  They  differ  from  them,  however,  in  their 
high  reproductive  activity  and  in  their  tendency  to  in- 
filtrate other  tissues.  Thus,  melanotic  infiltrations  of 
various  organs  sometimes  are  seen,  but  they  are  very  rare 
in  the  ox,  in  which  animal,  however,  tumours  of  this  black 
cancerous  material  occur,  and  often  are  of  very  considerable 
size.  They  differ  from  those  of  the  horse  in  having  a  less 
marked  tendency  to  spread,  and  also  in  not  having  a  pre- 
ference for  the  anal  and  coccygeal  parts  of  the  body. 

Treatment  of  cancerous  tumours  is  not  satisfactory. 
The  constitutional  tendency  remains  except  in  a  local 
case  taken  very  early ;  also  there  is  a  great  liability  to 
recurrence.  Excision  is  the  only  means  of  relief,  and 
all  the  morbid  material  must  be  removed.  Cases  of  this 
disease  are  not  frequent  in  the  ox  but  some  are  on  record. 


422  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

The  question  may  arise  as  to  the  propriety  of  use  of  the 
flesh  of  a  cancerous  animal  for  food ;  if  the  patient 
presents  marked  constitutional  changes  the  carcase  ought 
to  be  at  once  condemned.  But  we  have  no  proof  of 
cancer  of  the  lower  animals  being  communicable  to  man, 
and  it  is  highly  improbable  that  a  disease  which  can 
scarcely  be  communicated  by  inoculation  to  another  animal 
of  the  same  species  would  be  produced  by  ingestion  of 
the  flesh  as  food.  Thus,  the  use  of  such  flesh  must  be 
sanctioned,  but  we  must  remember  that  this  may  possibly 
be  a  source  of  human  disease,  and  should  make  this  a 
matter  for  testing  by  observations  and  experiments. 
Next  in  importance  to  the  true  cancers  must  be  placed  the 
Sarcomata — tumours  composed  of  embryonic  tissue. 
They  are  generally  described  as  cancer,  but  are  dis 
tinguishable  from  it  by  the  nature  of  their  elements. 
These  vary  considerably  in  their  characters,  but  in  all 
cases  they  present  the  distinctive  features  of  new  and 
imperfectly  formed  tissue.  This  generalised  nature  often 
makes  them  seem  malignant,  for  they  may  grow  in 
tissues  of  different  kinds,  and  are  frequently  seated  in 
the  lymphatic  system.  They  tend  to  recur,  for  since 
they  are  similar  in  nature  to  the  parts  in  which  they  are 
found,  the  generating  tissue  cannot  be  completely  re- 
moved. They  are  not  frequent  in  the  ox  unless  the 
disease  known  as  Osteosarcoma  or  Spina  ventosa  is  to  be 
considered  under  this  heading,  as  it  probably  ought  to  be. 
It  appears  as  a  swelling  of  the  face,  which  is  hot  and 
painful,  opposite  the  molar  teeth  either  of  the  upper  or 
lower  jaw.  This  increases  in  size  but  does  not  materially 
prevent  the  animal  from  feeding.  The  patient  is  generally 
young,  and  the  disease  seems  to  be  more  prevalent  in 
some  parts  of  the  country  than  in  others.  As  it  progresses 
the  molar  teeth  become  loose,  and  softening  of  the  swelling 
occurs  in  spots,  which  ultimately  burst,  and  there  is  then 
a  profuse  discharge  of  a  gelatinous  or  purulent  character. 

Post-mortem  examination  shows  disorganization  of  the 
bone  apparently  of  a  colloid  nature.  The  swollen  bony 
structure  is    arranged   in    bands   and  layers,    the    spaces 


TUMOURS.  423 

between  them  being  filled  with  a  gelatinous  reddish  or 
somewhat  white  and  creamy  substance.  The  true  nature 
of  the  disease  is  doubtful.  Gamgee  terms  it  "  Fihro-plastic 
degeneration  of  the  hone."  Williams  thinks  it  is  tubercular. 
By  others  it  is  considered  either  truly  cancerous  or  sarco- 
matous. Lastly,  it  is  thought  to  be  simply  a  form  of  osteo- 
myelitis. Until  more  careful  examination  of  its  nature  has 
been  made,  we  shall  be  hardly  in  a  position  to  decide  this 
matter.      Generally  some  injury  is  the  exciting  cause. 

Treatment  in  the  early  stages  must  consist  of  cutting 
down  on  the  diseased  parts  and  removing  them,  which 
must  be  done  with  a  saw  or  bone  forceps.  All  the  growth 
must  be  removed  to  avoid  recurrence.  The  edges  of  the 
wound  must  be  closed  by  sutures,  and  the  ordinary  treat- 
ment of  such  lesions  adopted.  In  advanced  cases  the 
animal  may  be  fattened  with  care  for  the  butcher. 

Subsection  2. — Non-malignant  or  Innocent  Tumours, 

Ordinary  Simple  Tumours  are  hypertrophies  of  the  tissues 
of  the  body,  and  hence  are  of  several  kinds  solid  or  cystic. 

Solid  :  Epidermic  or  Epithelial  Tumours,  such  as  ordi- 
nary warts  (for  which  see  p.  354)  on  the  skin  and  in  the  oeso- 
phagus. These  are  hypertrophies  of  the  skin  or  of  mucous 
membrane,  the  whole  thickness  of  tissue  being  involved. 

Fibromata  consist  of  the  ordinary  elements  of  areolar 
tissue  j  sometimes  they  are  highly  vascular.  Of  these, 
the  principal  are  the  subcutaneous  fibromata,  polypi  (as 
of  the  pharynx,  nasal  chamber,  or  vagina),  and  fibrous 
tumours  on  the  knees,  which  often  attain  a  very  con- 
siderable size  as  a  result  of  pressure. 

Lipomata — fatty  tumours — may  result  from  hypertro- 
phy of  adipose  tissue  in  almost  any  part  of  the  body ; 
the  most  important  are  those  in  the  appendices  epiploicae, 
which  may  have  such  long  peduncles  as  to  enable  them 
to  become  twisted  round  the  bowel,  producing  strangulation. 

Enchondromata — cartilaginous  tumours — are  not  often 
seen  in  the  ox,  they  generally  grow  from  pre-existing 
cartilage. 


424  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

Exostoses  and  Osseous  Tumours,  in  general,  are  the  result 
of  ossification  of  an  inflammatory  deposit,  whether  in 
connection  with  or  separate  from  a  bone.  Osteophytes 
are  bony  tumours,  generally  of  loose  texture.  Exostoses 
are  treated  more  in  detail  elsewhere  (see  p.  399). 

Calcareous  Tumours  are  inflammatory  exudates,  in  which 
earthy  matter  has  been  deposited,  or,  not  infrequently,  the 
result  of  calcareous  degeneration  of  hydatids. 

Lymphomata  have  been  already  alluded  to  (see  p.  225). 

There  are  other  forms  of  solid  tumours,  but  they  are  of 
little  importance  to  us  at  present. 

Cystic  Tumours  are  not  simple  hypertrophies,  but 
result  from  the  formation  of  cavities  filled  with  fluid, 
their  walls  being  more  or  less  dense.     They  comprise  : — 

Hoematomata — blood-containing  cysts — generally  the 
result  of  injury,  and  sometimes  having  a  false  aneurismal 
character. 

Serous  Abscesses j  due  to  injury,  which  has  caused  the  for- 
mation of  a  space  by  rupture  of  areolar  fibres  and  condensa- 
tion of  the  surrounding  connective  tissue  to  form  the  wall  of 
a  cavity  containing  serum.  These  are  most  frequently  seen 
in  front  of  the  knee.      They  are  most  prevalent  in  bulls. 


Fig.  84. — Suction  Trocar,  used  in  exploring  fluctuating  tumours.  The 
blunt  end  of  the  instrument  consists  of  a  compressible  india-rubber  ball. 
(From  Erichsen's  '  Surgery.') 

Bursal  enlargements. — Dropsies  of  bursse  may  be  due  to 
excessive  accumulation  of  synovia,  or  to  sprain  of  the  tendon 
belonging  to  the  bursa,  or  simply  the  manifestation  of 
a  general  tendency  to  effusion  in  consequence  of  debility. 

Hydatids. — These  are  larval  tapeworms,  sometimes  en- 
closed in  a  fibrous  investment  formed  by  condensation  of 
the  areolar  tissue  of  the  part  in  which  they  are  situated. 

Dermopilous  cysts  have  been  described  among  skin 
diseases  (p.  354). 


TUMOUBS. 


425 


We   find    no    record   of    cyst-bearing  and   dentigerous 
cysts  having  been  observed  in  cattle  practice. 


Fig  85. — Pneumatic  Aspirator,  used  for   the  removal  of  the   contents  of 
fluctuating  tumours  without  admission  of  air. 

Clinically,  tumours  are  of  minor  importance  in  com- 
parative pathology.  Their  diagnosis  comprises  determi- 
nation of  their  nature.  It  must  be  first  decided  whether 
the  swelling  is  solid  or  contains  liquid.  Certain  of  the 
cancers,  especially  of  the  medullary  form,  may  seem  to 
contain  fluid.  Generally  the  grooved  exploring  needle 
or  the  suction  trocar  (fig.  84)  may  be  used,  and  the 
material  brought  out  with  it  will  often  give  us  a  clue 
to  the  nature  of  the  case.  Signs  of  malignancy  must 
be  sought  for,  especially  the  diseased  condition  of  lym- 
phatic glands.  There  seems  to  be  in  some  animals 
a  tendency  to  hypertrophy  of  certain  tissues,  hence, 
not  infrequently,  a  number  of  fibrous  or  osseous  tumours 
appear,  simultaneously  however,  which  contrasts  with  the 
consecutive  growth  in  cases  of  malignance;  also  the 
growths  all  occupy  one  kind  of  tissue.  Some  swellings 
depend  on  inflammations,  and  must  be  considered  exu- 
dates in  a  more  or  less  altered  condition.  Our  guide  in 
determining  the  nature  of  these,  and  distinguishing  them 
from  hypertrophies,  must  be  their  origination  with  an 
inflammatory  attack,  also  their  course  to  a  standstill 
or  decrease  when  inflammation  ceases.  The  position  of 
the   growth  and    its    physical   characters    will    generally 


426  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

enable  the  practitioner  to  determine  with  considerable 
accuracy  its  composition  and  importance;  sometimes 
growths  prove  troublesome  by  their  tendency  to  block 
up  passages  either  by  pressure  or  by  plugging  ;  again, 
they  may  interfere  with  nutritive  supply  by  pressure 
on  vessels  (though  generally  they  grow  so  as  to  avoid 
Ihis)  j  often  they  cause  ulceration  of  the  investing 
skin  by  pressure,  and  are  thus  transformed  into  obstinate 
ulcers  or  irregular  bloody  projecting  masses  of  a  highly 
irritable  character,  and  with  a  tendency  to  bleed  pro- 
fusely; sometimes,  by  their  size,  form,  and  position, 
they  are  serious  eyesores.  In  growth,  they  may  become 
pedunculated  or  wide  at  the  base. 

Treatment  consists  in  their  removal  with  the  knife  or 
hot  iron,  or  by  some  other  cauterising  agent,  or  their 
destruction  through  defective  nutritive  supply  from  pres- 
sure of  a  ligature  round  the  base.  In  cases  of  cystic 
tumour  other  measures  must  be  tried  before  recourse  is 
had  to  surgical  removal.  Generally  evacuation  of  the 
contents  is  indicated,  the  exceptions  being  hsematomata, 
synovial  cysts,  and  recent  serous  abscesses.  In  them 
inflammation  must  be  set  up  to  lead  to  consolidation,  or 
absorbent  agents,  as  the  biniodide  of  mercury,  must  be 
freely  applied ;  pressure  also  is  highly  valuable  as  a 
means  of  promoting  absorption.  Surgical  removal  of  a 
tumour  of  any  considerable  size  necessitates  casting  the 
animal.  The  skin  must  be  boldly  divided,  and  all  the 
mass  removed,  the  process  of  dissection  being  more  or 
less  careful  according  to  the  proximity  or  otherwise  of 
important  organs.  Carbolic  spray  may  be  used  during 
the  operation,  and,  if  deemed  advisable,  the  part  may  be 
placed  in  a  state  of  anaesthesia  or  the  patient  put  under 
chloroform.  All  arteries  should  be  tied  with  catgut 
thread,  and  bleeding  may  be  reduced  as  much  as  possible 
by  a  free  supply  of  cold  water,  sponging,  and  some- 
times pressure  along  the  course  of  the  artery  of  supply. 
Finally,  sutures  may  be  inserted,  and  the  animal 
allowed  to  rise.  Bony  tumours  must  be  removed  with  a 
saw  or  bone   forceps.     After-treatment    is  that  required 


TUMOURS. 


427 


for  ordinary  wounds  of  some  size.  In  these  operations 
no  skin  must  be  removed  unless  it  is  discard,  however 
loose  it  may  seem ;  after  removal  of  the  tumour  it  will 
soon  adapt  itself  to  the  parts  beneath. 

Caustics^  when  used  for  the  destruction  of  tumours, 
generally  require  to  be  several  times  repeated.  The  best 
for  this  purpose  are  those  which  penetrate  deeply  and 
cause  considerable  destruction  of  tissue,  such  as  the 
mineral  acids.  Occasionally  destruction  is  brought  about 
by  placing  masses  of  caustic  in  the  centre  of  the  tumour, 
which  lead  to  destructive  changes  of  the  surrounding 
mass.  The  red-hot  iron  is  one  of  the  most  effectual 
caustics ;  with  it  a  projecting  mass  of  tumour  may  be 
amputated  without  danger  from  haemorrhage.  Acetic 
acid  has  been  recommended  in  cancers,  as  having  a 
special  influence  in  causing  swelling  and  destruction  of 
the  cells.  (The  galvanic  cautery  is  used  in  human  prac- 
tice.) The  ecraseur  is  a  useful  instrument  for  removal 
of  tumours.  Ligatures  around  the  pedicles  of  tumours 
may  be  of  thread  or  horsehair;  they  must  not  be  too 
large,  and  must  be  sufficiently  tight  to  exert  firm  pres- 
sure ;  an  elastic  ring  may  be  used  instead,  and  is  very 
effectual. 


'%. 


Fig.  86. — Miles*  Ecraseur. 


Fig.  87.— Beach's  Ecraseur. 


428  BOVINE  PATHOLOGY. 


CHAPTER  XI.— THE  GENERATIVE  ORGANS. 

Section  1. — Diseases  of  the    Male  Organs  of    Genera- 
tion. 

The  testes  of  the  bull  are  well  developed,  and  elongated 
from  above  downwards.  The  vesiculse  seminales  are 
glandular,  and  Cowper^s  glands  are  absent,  but  the  most 
remarkable  structure  as  compared  with  that  of  the  horse  is 
the  penis,  which  is  very  long  and  narrow,  having  a  firm 
external  investment  surrounding  it,  and  a  well-developed 
band  in  the  centre  of  the  corpus  cavernosum.  Just  behind 
the  scrotum  the  organ  presents  an  S-shaped  flexure,  to  the 
posterior  convexity  of  which  are  attached  the  retractor 
muscles.  The  glans  penis  is  fine  and  tapering;  to  the 
sheath,  at  about  opposite  the  umbilicus,  run  the  retractor 
muscles  from  behind,  and  circular  fibres  from  in  front 
extend  through  the  prepuce  and  are  known  as  the  pro- 
tractors. A  tuft  of  hair  hangs  down  from  the  opening  of 
the  prepuce.  As  in  the  case  of  the  horse,  early  castration 
prevents  many  of  the  generative  disorders  to  which  the 
ox  would  otherwise  be  liable,  while  it  also  checks  pug- 
nacity and  so  lessens  the  frequency  of  injury.  The 
castrated  male  is  more  docile,  forms  better  beef,  and  often 
a  larger  body  than  the  uncastrated ;  the  change  induced 
by  the  operation  is,  therefore,  in  every  respect,  beneficial. 
The  operation  of  Castration  is  performed  by  removal  of 
the  generative  glands,  and  various  methods  of  performance 
of  this  have  been  suggested.  In  India  "  mulling  " 
is  the  popular  method.  It  is  described  by  Mr.  Richard 
Poyser  in  the  *  Veterinary  Journar  (1875)  as  orchithlasis, 
and  depends  upon  breaking  down  the  structures  of  the  sper- 


THE  MALE  GENERATIVE  ORGANS. 


429 


matic  cord  by   a    special  manipulative  process.      In  this 
country  a  simple  method  termed  'Hashing'^  used  to  be  very 


Fig.  88.— External  gpnerative  organs  of  a  bull  dissected.  1  and  2.  Muscles 
of  prepuce.  3.  Scrotum,  dartos  muscle ;  above  it  the  spermatic  cord. 
4.  Anterior  curvature  of  penis.  5.  Retractor  muscles  of  penis. 
6.  Superficial  abdominal  veins.     (Chauveau.) 


Fm.  89.— Urethral  canal  of  the  ox      a.  Bladder,     b.  Straight  portions  of 
canal,    c.  Curvatures,     d.  Retractor  muscles.     (Armatage.) 

prevalent ;  it  consisted  of  tying  a  piece  of  cord  so  tightly 


430  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

round  the  root  of  tlie  scrotum  that  this  organ  with  its 
contents  underwent  mortification,  and  in  due  course  of 
time  sloughed  off,  or  was  removed  with  the  knife. 
Quite  recently  a  modification  of  this  process  has  been 
suggested  and  tried  in  France  with  some  success ;  this 
is  the  compression  of  the  root  of  the  scrotum  by  means 
of  an  elastic  hand,  considerably  too  small.  This  method 
has  the  advantage  of  the  pressure  being  even,  and 
constantly  varying  with  the  diminution  in  size  of  the 
root.  Generally  the  process  of  removal  with  the  hot 
iron  is  adopted.  The  patient  is  thrown,  the  skin  rendered 
tense  over  one  testicle  with  the  hand,  and  an  incision 
made  boldly  in  as  far  as  the  tunica  vaginalis  testis; 
the  sperm  gland  is  then  drawn  out,  and  the  opera- 
tion completed  by  division  of  the  cord  by  means  of  a 
red-hot  iron.  Sometimes  the  scrotum  is  opened  with  the 
hot  iron,  it  being  urged  that  this  entirely  checks  any  ten- 
dency to  union  of  the  external  wound  by  first  intention, 
whereby  the  pus  from  the  seared  end  of  the  cord  is  apt 
to  become  pent  up.  Subsequently  the  parts  should  be 
examined  occasionally,  to  see  that  this  closure  does  not 
take  place  too  early,  and  also  to  break  down  any  adhesion 
between  the  spermatic  cord  and  the  external  wound. 
After  the  testis  has  been  freed  the  cord  may  be  scraped 
through  with  a  knife  having  a  jagged  edge,  or  the  posterior 
part  having  been  freely  divided,  the  anterior  may  be 
scraped  through.  This  method  has  the  advantage  of  being 
quick,  surgical,  and  not  liable  to  be  followed  by  haemor- 
rhage or  other  complications ;  also  not  infrequently  the 
parts  heal,  even  without  suppuration. 

The  method  of  ligature  consists  in  tying  either  the  whole 
cord  or  only  the  spermatic  artery  in  the  anterior  part,  and 
then  removing  the  testis.  It  is  said  that  tetanus  is  rather 
apt  to  follow  this  form  of  the  operation,  also  there  is  a  lia- 
bility to  secondary  haemorrhage  when  the  ligature  separates. 

Torsion,  either  of  the  whole  cord,  or  simply  of 
the  spermatic  artery,  until  it  gives  way,  is  not  liable  to 
be  followed  by  haemorrhage,  and  is  preferred  by  some 
practitioners;    it  certainly  is  very    effectual.      In    France 


THE  MALE  GENERATIVE  ORGANS.  431 

torsion  without  incision  into  tlie  scrotum  is  performed  in 
a  special  manner,  and  leads  to  atrophy  of  the  testes.  The 
barbarous  operation  of  tearing  out  the  testicle  used  to  be 
followed,  but  is  not  much  resorted  to  now.  It  is  said 
especially  to  predispose  to  pelvic  hernia,  and  the  cord  is 
apt  to  tear  off  too  short,  and  thus  give  rise  to  inconve- 
nience and  disorder.  The  removal  of  the  testis,  after  it 
has  been  exposed,  by  means  of  the  ecraseuvj  is  easy, 
quick,  and  effectual,  and  the  use  of  this  instrument  is 
regarded   with    considerable   favour   in  the  present   day. 


Fig.  90. — Castrating  Clamps. 

Removal  with  the  Glamps,  and  hy  the  Covered  Operation 
are  seldom  resorted  to  now,  the  latter,  as  already  noticed, 
being  required  in  cases  of  inguinal  and  scrotal  herniae, 
such  as  require  the  operation  for  radical  cure  (seep.  281). 
Animals  are  chosen  to  undergo  castration  when  they 
are  two  or  three  months  old,  before  the  glands  have  mani- 
fested their  generative  activity.  If  it  be  performed  later 
there  is  greater  liability  to  untoward  complications,  and 
it  is  said  the  meat  is  not  so  good.  Indeed,  it  is  not  at 
all  advisable  to  delay  the  operation,  for  the  extra  develop- 
ment is  not  an  advantage,  as  in  the  horse.  Sometimes, 
but  rarely,  we  require  to  operate  upon  an  older  animal, 
then  the  scraping  method  is  still  very  good,  but  castration 
with  the  hot  iron  is  generally  preferred.  Greater  liability 
to  complications  is  seen  in  old  animals  than  in  young. 
Of  these  the  principal  are  hernia,  haemorrhage,  tetanus, 
and  peritonitis,  and  adhesions  of  the  testis  to  the  scrotum. 
In  the  primary  incision  care  must  be  taken  lest  a  small 
portion  of  bowel  in  the  scrotum  be  divided.    All  animals 


432  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

should  be  carefully  examined,  to  ensure  the  absence  of 
hernia,  before  castration  is  commenced.  Haemorrhage 
may  be  treated  by  cold-water  applications,  or  by  taking 
up  the  artery  and  applying  a  ligature.  Adhesions  must 
be  broken  down,  and  not  allowed  to  interfere  with  the 
operation.  Finally,  if  flies  be  troublesome,  the  parts  may 
be  dressed  with  carbolic  solution,  but  animals  should  be 
castrated  as  much  as  possible  when  no  flies  are  about. 
The  slight  movements  of  the  animals  in  pasture,  and  green 
food  will  do  them  good.  Sometimes  it  is  deemed  advisable 
to  perform  the  operation  with  the  patient  standing.  He 
is  then  secured  by  fastening  the  hind  limbs  together,  or 
by  means  of  the  side-line. 

Emasculation  of  the  ox  is  less  frequently  performed  by 
the  veterinary  practitioner  than  of  the  horse.  It  is 
generally  placed  in  the  hands  of  empirical  operators, 
who  sometimes,  by  practice,  attain  considerable  dexterity, 
but  are  not  competent  to  meet  the  emergencies  which 
may  arise,  and  require  prompt  action.  It  is  thus  not 
infrequent  to  find  the  operation  omitted  from  works  on 
diseases  and  treatment  of  cattle,  but  we  have  thought  it 
advisable  to  give  the  above  resume  of  methods. 

Orchitis — inflammation  of  the  testicle — may  result 
from  injury  or  excessive  copulation.  The  former  is  the 
most  frequent  cause.  There  is  considerable  pain  and 
heat  in  the  diseased  part,  the  dense  investment  of  which 
does  not  freely  admit  of  swelling,  and  fever  may  run  high. 
Atrophy  and  suppuration  have  been  noted  as  consequences ; 
in  either  case  there  is  apt  to  be  loss  of  generative  power, 
or  the  animal  will  become  an  irregular  stock  getter. 
Measures  adapted  to  control  local  inflammation,  together 
with  febrifuges,  will  generally  restore  the  animal  to  health. 
Sometimes  the  inflammation  is  of  a  scrofulous  character, 
leading  to  deposits  of  a  speciflc  nature  in  the  testis; 
this  is  the  state  known  as  Tubercular  Sarcocele.  The 
animal  should  not  then  be  again  utilised  for  breeding 
purposes,  but  early  castration  may  check  the  progress  of 
the  disease. 

Sarcocele  is  enlargement  of  the  testis ;  it  may  be  can- 


THE  MALE  GENEEATIVE  ORGANS.  433 

cerouSj  or  non-specific,  but  a  scrofulous  form  is  most 
frequent.  The  spermatic  cord  is  liable  to  certain  morbid 
conditions  of  its  various  components.  Aneurisms  and  vari- 
cose veins  are  sometimes  present,  giving  rise  to  swelling, 
not  necessarily  of  a  painful  character.  These  conditions 
are  generally  associated  under  the  name  varicocele. 

In  a  specimen  before  us.  Sterility  was  attributable  to 
fatty  deposits  around  the  structures  of  the  cord.  It  may  be 
due  also  to  morbid  changes  in  the  seminiferous  passages 
blocking  them  up ;  and  in  other  cases  is  attributable  to 
nervous  disorder,  due  to  over- excitement  of  the  sexual 
apparatus.  In  such  cases  high  feeding,  regular  exercise, 
and  tonics  should  be  tried,  and  the  animal  prevented  from 
the  exercise  of  the  generative  functions  for  some  time. 
This  derangement  is  especially  liable  to  occur  in  young 
bulls  allowed  too  early  to  exercise  their  procreative  powers. 

Sometimes  on  incision  into  the  scrotum  in  castration 
a  considerable  amount  of  fluid  escapes.  This  dropsy  of 
the  vaginal  cavity  is  Hydrocele  ;  it  is  not  frequent  in  the  ox, 
and  seldom  of  much  importance. 

The  penis  is  liable  to  injury  suh  coitu,  which  interferes 
with  its  protraction  or  retraction.  The  rapid  perform- 
ance of  the  act  in  cattle  rather  predisposes  to  this. 
Generally  the  parts  are  restored  to  their  healthy  state 
after  a  short  period  of  inability ;  but  deposits  may  give 
rise  to  permanent  deformity. 

Such  injuries  predispose  to  Cancer  of  the  organ,  which 
is  occasionally  seen  in  cattle.  Cases  of  this  kind  are 
given  in  the  ^  Yeterinarian,^  vol.  xii,  p.  51,  and  the 
'  Veterinary  Eecord,^  vol.  iii,  p.  232.  They  may  neces- 
sitate amputation  of  the  glans  or  of  a  still  larger  portion  of 
the  organ.  This  is  performed  by  casting  the  animal, 
drawing  out  the  penis,  passing  a  sound  along  the  urethral 
passage,  and  retaining  it  in  position  by  a  ligature  tightly 
compressing  the  organ  posteriorly  to  the  seat  of  amputa- 
tion. A  circular  incision  must  then  be  made  on  to  the 
sound  all  round,  and  the  ligature  be  left  on  for  a  day  or 
two,  the  sound  also  remaining  in  position  to  keep  open  the 
urethral  passage. 

28 


434  BOVINE    PATHOLOGr* 

Phymosis  is  inability  to  protrude  the  penis,  due  generally 
to  contraction  of  tlie  anterior  part  of  the  prepuce  or  to 
disease  of  the  glans.  It  may  also  result  from  excessive 
accumulation  of  smegma.  It  is  associated  with  certain 
chronic  inflammations  of  the  sheath  which  result  from 
irritating  discharges,  in  some  of  which  there  is  extensive 
ulceration  of  the  surrounding  parts.  Usually  there  is  an 
impediment  to  the  passage  of  urine,  which  trickles  on  to 
the  surrounding  parts,  and  increases  the  extent  of  the 
disease,  which  at  first  has  an  erythematous  character. 
Phymosis  is  less  apt  to  occur  in  the  ox  than  the  horse, 
because  of  the  mobility  of  the  prepuce  in  the  former 
animal,  the  pointed  condition  of  the  glans,  and  the  great 
freedom  of  movement  of  the  penis.  It  requires  to  be  treated 
by  fomentations  to  cleanse  the  parts,  and  manipulative 
protrusion  of  the  penis,  which  can  generally  be  accomplished 
after  prolonged  fomentation.  Failing  this,  an  incision  may 
be  made  into  the  sheath.  If  any  morbid  growths  are  on  the 
glans,  they  must  be  removed  with  the  knife.  The  sur- 
rounding parts  will  require  to  be  protected  with  glycerine, 
vaseline,  or  lard. 

Calculus  of  the  Urethral  Passage  depends  upon  the 
entry  of  a  small  stone  from  the  bladder,  its  impactment, 
and  an  impediment  to  the  free  flow  of  urine.  Sometimes 
the  obstruction  is  complete,  in  other  cases  only  partial. 
In  the  latter,  strangury  is  the  most  prominent  sign,  and 
the  symptoms  are  less  urgent.  In  the  former  there  is  no 
passage  of  urine,  the  urethral  canal  is  distended  to  the 
seat  of  calculus,  and  the  over-distended  bladder  tends  to 
burst ,  this  occurs  and  causes  death  in  some  cases.  In  one 
the  membranous  portion  of  the  urethra  gave  way,  and 
infiltration  of  urine  into  the  surrounding  tissues  took 
place  and  resulted  in  uraemia.  The  stone  generally  becomes 
fixed  against  the  flexure  of  the  penis,  and  the  presence  of 
this,  as  well  as  the  smallness  of  the  canal,  is  the  cause  of 
the  greater  frequence  of  this  disorder  in  the  ox  than  the 
horse ;  also  it  is  attributable  to  the  fact  that  the  food  of 
the  former  contains  often  an  excessive  amount  of  phos- 
phates, which  are  liable  to  form  deposits,  especially  around 


THE  MALE  GENEEATIVE  ORGANS.  435 

tlie  prepuce  and  tte  hairs  hanging  down  from  it,  on  which 
the  excess  of  phosphates  in  the  urine  forms  stalagmitic 
threads.  The  slow  expulsion  of  the  urine  is  one  cause  of 
this.  Accumulations  of  inspissated  secretion  around  the 
urethral  orifice  also  sometimes  impede  the  escape  of 
urine.  Hairs  thus  covered  may  be  cut  off,  and  the  ac- 
cumulated calcareous  matter  and  sebaceous  material  must 
be  removed  from  around  the  glans.  In  cases  of  urethral 
calculus,  relief  must  be  afforded  by  incision  on  to  the 
stone  and  its  removal,  when  a  great  rush  of  urine  will 
take  place  through  the  wound.  This  incision  must  be 
made  longitudinally  and  suflQciently  long  to  allow  of  the 
free  exit  of  the  stone.  The  animal  may  be  kept  standing, 
but  the  hind  legs  fastened  together.  In  the  distended 
state  of  the  bladder  it  is  not  always  advisable  to  cast 
him.  The  escape  of  urine  will  be  followed  by  cessation 
of  violent  signs  of  over- distension  of  the  bladder.  The 
wound  should  be  closed  with  sutures.  Urethral  calculi 
are  not  often  seen  in  the  female.^ 

GoNORRHoeA,  vulgarly  termed  '^  Bull  Burnt/'  is  a  dis- 
ease of  the  glans  penis  and  sheath  of  the  bull,  associated 
with  a  certain  amount  of  disorder  of  the  lining  membrane 
of  the  urethra.  When  the  latter  is  much  affected,  there 
is  a  profuse  discharge  of  thick  mucus,  and  evident  pain 
on  passage  of  urine  is  observable  in  every  case,  but  is 
sometimes  very  extreme.  The  patient  stamps,  moans, 
lashes  the  tail,  and  evacuates  the  urine  in  jets  rather 
than  in  full  stream.  A  certain  amount  of  fever  is  present. 
The  prepuce  may  be  primarily  or  secondarily  affected  ; 
it  is  swollen,  hot,  and  tender,  and  becomes  ulcerated 
internally,  and  abscesses  may  form  in  it,  and  sinuses 
extend  into  the  substance  of  the  penis.  The  inflamma- 
tion of  the  urethra  is  attributable  to  excessive  venery, 
and  is  most  frequently  seen  in  highly  fed  animals.  When 
neglected  the  disease  terminates  in  fungous  growths, 
which  may  necessitate  amputation  of  the  penis.  It  is 
certain  that  if   bulls  thus  affected  be  allowed  to  copulate 

'  I  have  a  record  of  but  one  such  case ;  it  is  by  Mr.  Matthew  Hedlcy,  of 
the  Irish  Veteriuury  D<ipurtmcut. 


436  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

they  give  rise  to  a  similar  disease  o£  tlie  lining  mem- 
brane of  the  vagina  and  the  vulva.  Thus,  it  has  been 
supposed  that  this  discharge  has  a  specific  character 
resembling  that  of  the  syphilitic  gonorrhoea  of  man. 
There  is  grave  doubt  with  regard  to  the  nature  of  some 
cases  of  gonorrhoea,  but  certainly  that  form  seen  in  this 
country  is  not  specific.  The  ulceration  of  the  vulvo- 
vaginal membrane  is  due  to  acridity  of  the  discharges 
(see  Leucorrhoea).  Though  considerable  sexual  excitement 
is  manifested  by  both  male  and  female  animals  affected 
by  this  disorder  they  must  not  be  indulged,  since  this 
only  aggravates  the  case. 

Treatment  comprises  thorough  cleansing  of  the  affected 
parts,  for  which  purpose  the  bull  generally  requires  to  be 
cast,  opening  of  abscesses,  and  slitting  up  of  sinuses ; 
touching  long-standing  ulcers  with  nitrate  of  silver  and 
the  reduction  of  fungous  growths  with  more  powerful 
caustics,  such  as  the  butter  of  antimony;  a  dressing  of 
Glycerinum  Acidi  Carbolici  to  be  applied  all  over  the 
diseased  surface  to  allay  irritability  and  promote  healing. 
The  parts  must  be  dressed  every  second  or  third  day, 
according  to  the  state  of  the  case,  but  the  animal  need 
not  be  cast  each  time.  Cases  of  this  kind  will  thus  not 
prove  so  protracted  as  they  are  generally  considered  to  be. 

Uretheitis — simple  inflammation  of  the  urethra — un- 
complicated by  the  above  disorder  is  very  rare.  When 
a  case  occurs,  it  must  be  treated  with  anodyne  fomenta- 
tions and  injections.  The  most  distressing  symptoms 
arise  from  spasm  of  the  accelerator  muscle  during  passage 
of  the  urine. 

Section  2. — Diseases  op  the  Female  Generative  Organs. 

The  uterus  of  the  cow  differs  from  that  of  the  mare  in 
the  fact  that  its  horns,  situated  at  the  free  margins  of  the 
broad  ligaments,  are  twisted  upwards,  so  that  their  con- 
cavity is  inferiorly  placed.  Also,  in  the  pregnant  animal, 
the  increased  vascularity  of  the  mucous  membrane  is  con- 
fined to  certain  spots,   the    uterine  cotyledons,  for   rumi- 


rOETUS     IN    UTERO, 
surrounded,  by  Us  membranes 


THE  FEMALE  GENERATIVE  OEQANS. 


437 


nants  have  the  placenta  formed  by  a  number  of  cotyledons; 
the  walls  of  the  vagina  contain  rudimentary  tubes,  canals 
of  Gaertner ;  the  labia  are  thick,  and  from  the  inferior 
commissure  hangs  a  tuft  of  hair.  The  pelvis  of  the  cow 
is  so  arranged  that  the  expulsion  of  the  foetus  is  more 
tardy  than  in  the  mare.  The  ischium  is  very  large  and 
expanded,  and  forms  a  very  considerable  part  of  the  pelvic 
wall,  the  sacro-sciatic  ligament  being  correspondingly 
shortened.  The  posterior  part  of  the  ischial  junction 
forms,  with  the  remainder  of  the  symphysis,  an  oblique 
angle  superiorly,  and  thus  the  pelvic  outlet  is  diminished 
in  size,  and  placed  above  the  general  level  of  the  floor  of 
the  cavity.     The  pelvic  passage  of  the  cow  is  long. 


Fig.  91.  Female  generative  organs,  a.  Body  of  uterus,  h.  Its  external  os. 
c.  Its  horns,  d.  Fallopian  tubes,  e.  Ovaries.  /.  Broad  ligaments. 
g.  Bladder,  h.  Meatus  urinarius  externus.  i.  Cavity  of  vagina.  (After 
Simonds.) 

The  ovaries  of  the  cow  are  smaller  than  those  of  the 
mare ;  they  are  liable  to  only  two  forms  of  disorder. 

Deopsy  of  THE  OvAEiES  is  sccn  in  old  animals,  and 
especially  in  those  which  have  not  been  impregnated.     It 


438  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

is  due  to  tlie  continued  and  unrelieved  distension  of  the 
Graafian  vesicles,  which  enlarge  so  slowly  that  the  fibrous 
coat  of  the  ovary  is  still  able  to  protect  them  from  burst- 
ing. This  condition  is  denoted  by  constant  oestrum, 
which  does  not  seem  to  be  relieved  by  copulation.  It  can 
only  be  treated  by  removal  of  the  organs. 

Ateophy  or  THE  Ovaries  is  associated  with  hermaphro- 
ditic malformations  of  the  generative  apparatus,  and  with 
malignant  disease,  either  of  the  organs  themselves  or  the 
generative  passages.  It  is  not  described  as  a  distinct 
disease.  This  condition  can  hardly  be  diagnosed.  Only 
one  ovary  may  be  in  this  state,  then  the  animal  will  be 
in  a  condition  to  breed. 

Ovariotomy — Removal  of  the  Ovaries — Spaying — Cas- 
tration OF  Cows — is  an  operation  of  which  the  value,  from 
an  economical  point  of  view,  has  been  much  debated.  The 
following  arguments  have  been  advanced  in  its  favour  : 

1.  The  milk  is  produced  continuously,  and  in  increased 
quantity,  and  of  better  quality  after  the  operation.  This 
is  not,  however,  by  any  means  generally  admitted. 

2.  The  animals  are  not  subject  to  the  periodical  incon- 
venience of  oestrum. 

3.  They  are  not  so  liable  to  disease,  especially  the 
numerous  and  complex  disorders  of  the  generative 
apparatus. 

4.  They  fatten  more  readily  and  attain  a  greater  weight 
than  other  cows. 

5.  By  spaying  beasts  of  doubtful  value  for  breeding 
purposes  the  race  will  be  gradually  improved. 

Nevertheless  the  operation  has  not  been  generally 
adopted,  for  some  of  the  above-mentioned  arguments 
are  of  a  doubtful  character.  The  animals  operated  upon 
are  not  so  generally  useful,  tend  too  much,  in  some 
cases,  to  the  laying  on  of  fat,  and  altogether  are  not  so 
profitable  as  the  uncastrated  females. 

Spaying  sometimes  requires  to  be  performed  as  a 
curative  means.  An  incision  is  made  in  the  flank  in 
the  usual  manner.  The  hand  is  introduced  and  feels  for 
the  ovaries,  which  are  drawn  out  through  the  wound  and 


THE  FEMALE   GENERATIVE    ORGANS. 


439 


excised  by  means  of  tlie  jagged-edged  knife,  or  removed 
with  the  ecraseur.  Only  one  incision  is  generally  neces- 
sary, for  both  ovaries  can  be  reached  through  it.  This 
may  preferably  be  made  on  the  left  side.  After  the 
operation  has  been  completed,  the  wound  being  closed 
in  the  usual  way,  the  patient  must  be  kept  quiet  and 
fed  on  nourishing  food,  and  the  bowels  kept  open.  Un- 
toward results  seldom  follow  this  operation.  Removal  of  the 
ovaries  through  the  vaginal  wall  has  been  tried  with  success. 
Menstruation  of  the  cow  is  associated  with  the  escape 
of  the  ova  from  the  ovaries,  being  accompanied  by  that  con- 


FiG.  92.— Maternal  and  foetal  cotyledons  of  the  cow.  A.  Pedicle  of  the 
maternal  cotyledon.  b.  Maternal  cotyledon.  c.  Fcetal  cotyledon 
D.  Plticental  villi.  B.  Chorion.  (From  Fleming's  'Veterinary  Ob- 
stetrics.') 


dition  of  excitation  known  as  CEstrum,  or  Heat.    "  Kahleis, 
Fuchs,  Spinola,  Numan,  and  others,  have  observed  evident 


440 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


sanguine  emissions  in  the  cow,  and  have  also  noted  that 
the  discharge  occurs  regularly  at  intervals  of  nineteen  or 
twenty  days,  when  the  animal  is  not  giving  milk  or  in  calf. 
The  hasmorrhagic  flow  appears  two  or  three  days  after  the 
commencement  of  the  'rutting/  and  when  this  is  most 
intense"  (Fleming).  Thus,  we  have  the  opinions  of  the 
leading  observers  on  the  subject  summarised  by  the  author 
of  the  excellent  work  on  'Veterinary  Obstetrics.'  It 
generally  commences  when  the  animal  is  about  twelve 
months  old,  and  occurs  with  fair  regularity  every  month 
or  three  weeks  during  the  ''  rutting"  season,  the  duration 
of  each  period  being  but  short.  Whether  or  not  impregna- 
tion takes  place,  a  proliferation  of  the  uterine  epithelium 
occurs.  When  this  is  thrown  off  it  is  intermingled  with 
a  small  amount  of  blood.  Sometimes  the  discharge  has 
not  a  sanguineous  character.  The  oestral  ^products  may 
be  retained,  as  in  cases  of  impervious  neck  of  the 
uterus  or  imperforate  hymen.  They  then  accumulate,  and 
give  rise  to  symptoms  resembling  those  of  dropsy  of  the 
uterus.  Again,  they  may  be  very  profusej  and  contain 
much  blood,  as  in  a  case  related  by  Mr.  Macgillivray,  of 
Banff  ('Veterinary  Journal,'  vol.  iv,  p.  186).  In  others 
they  are  suppressed,  and  then  the  ordinary  signs  of  oestrum 
are  usually,  but  not  always,  absent.  Such  cases  of  sup- 
pression must  be  distinguished  from  those  of  retention, 
the  latter  being  by  far  the  more  serious  condition.  Sup- 
pression is  due  to  debilitating  constitutional  disorders,  and 
must  be  looked  upon  as  a  symptom  of  disease.  With  reten- 
tion it  is  generally  included  under  the  heading  Amenorrhcea. 
Sterility  is  not  at  all  infrequent  in  heifers,  especially 
well-bred  animals.  It  is  generally  associated  with  fre- 
quent oestrum,  but  sometimes  there  is  an  absence  of 
sexual  desire.  It  may  depend  upon  imperviousness  of  any 
of  the  generative  passages,  such  as  results  from  inflamma- 
tion of  them,  scrofulous  disease,  or  morbid  growths  ;  it  is, 
therefore,  one  of  the  symptoms  of  scirrhous  os  uteri,  im- 
pervious hymen,  and  congenital  malformation  of  the  gene- 
rative organs,  as  seen  in  hermaphrodites.  Again,  the 
excessively  fattened  condition  may  cause  sterility. 


THE  FEMALE  GENERATIVE  OEGANS.  441 

Feee  Martins  are  born  twins  with  bull  calves,  and  have 
the  external  form  of  the  female,  but  are  reputed  to  be 
sterile.  John  Hunter,  whose  great  mind  neglected  no 
source  of  information,  made  this  popular  opinion  a  matter 
of  inquiry.  He  found  that  the  apparently  female  calf  is 
often  hermaphroditic,  but  all  free  martins  are  not  to  be 
considered  sterile,  as  many  prove  fertile. 

The  progress  of  llteiO -gestation  is  associated  with  a 
higher  development  of  the  structures  of  the  uterine  wall, 
whereby  they  are  adapted  for  the  supply  of  oxygen  and 
nutritive  materials  to  the  foetus.  These  changes,  being  in 
the  direction  of  higher  development,  increase  the  liability 
to  disease.  Sometimes  False  Labour-pains  occur  before 
the  usual  period,  tending  to  produce  abortion,  and  due  to 
such  influences  as  disturb  the  relations  between  the  mother 
and  the  foetus.  Thus,  falls  and  injuries  separate  some  of 
the  cotyledons,  and  stimulate  the  muscular  walls  of  the 
uterus  to  contract.  Any  colicky  pains  dependent  upon 
the  pregnant  condition  of  the  uterus,  but  not  succeeded  by 
expulsion  of  the  foetus,  must  be  classed  under  this  head- 
ing. Some  authorities  also  include  those  which  produce 
untimely  expulsion.  The  difference  is  one  of  degree, 
not  of  kind  :  therefore  these  uterine  spasms,  whenever 
they  take  place  prematurely,  should  be  carefully  watched, 
and,  if  they  seem  likely  to  produce  ill  effects,  must  be 
controlled  by  opium  or  some  other  antispasmodic.  At 
the  same  time  all  irritant  food-stuffs  which  may  have 
been  the  cause  by  reflex  action,  must  in  future  be 
avoided. 

The  Signs  op  Pregnancy  are,  sometimes  a  cessation 
of  oestrum  and  a  considerable  improvement  in  condition 
together  with  a  want  of  inclination  for  the  bull.  The 
abdomen  enlarges  and  becomes  pendulous,  and  the 
mammae  increase  in  size,  as  also  does  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  vulva  and  vagina  and  its  secretion  is 
increased.  About  the  fifth  month  the  fcetus  may  he 
detected  hy  manipulation  of  the  right  side ;  the  wall  of 
the  abdomen  in  front  of  the  stifle  being  suddenly  raised 
with  the  hand,  the  foetus   in  utero  will   fall  back  again 


442  BOVINE  PATHOLOGY. 

and  be  felt.  About  this  time,  too,  careful  examination 
will  detect  foetal  movements,  and  later  these  can  be  per- 
ceived without  manipulation.  Exploration  per  rectum  or 
per  vaginam  is  sometimes  resorted  to  as  a  means  of  con- 
firming the  diagnosis,  and  it  is  said  that  the  beats  of  the 
foetal  heart  may  be  detected  by  auscultation  in  front  of 
the  symphysis  pubis. 

Abortion  occurs  very  frequently,  due  to  the  nature  of 
the  food  and  other  influences.  It  must  be  distinguished 
artifically  from  premature  birth  in  which  the  foetus  is 
able  to  live  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time  after  expulsion. 
Fleming  estimates  all  cases  as  abortions  which  take  place 
thirty-five  days  before  the  normal  period  of  from  nine  to 
ten  months.  He  quotes  the  valuable  observations  of 
Earl  Spencer,  that  no  calf  can  be  born  alive  before  the 
220th  nor  after  the  313th  day,  and  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  rear  those  born  before  the  242nd  day.  This 
accident  is  termed  slinking  or  slipping  the  calf,  and  is 
sometimes  sporadic,  often  epizootic  or  enzootic.  It  varies 
in  importance  with  the  stage  of  pregnancy  in  which  it 
occurs.  Thus,  in  early  stages  it  may  cause  no  apparent 
inconvenience,  later  it  is  accompanied  by  some  fever,  a 
yellowish-red  discharge  from  the  vagina,  and  a  consider- 
able amount  of  uneasiness,  and  still  later,  there  are  all 
the  ordinary  signs  of  parturition.  It  is  liable  to  be  brought 
on  by  too  frequently  taking  the  bull,  by  various  kinds  of 
injuries,  by  bad  feeding,  or  the  presence  of  fungi,  such  as 
ergot  or  ustilago  (rust)  on  the  food,  and  by  excessive  expo- 
sure to  cold.  It  often  results  from  debility.  It  generally 
takes  place  in  pregnant  animals  affected  with  blood  disease, 
is  common  in  cases  of  hernia,  and  may  be  due  to  nervous 
influence.  Owing  to  the  latter  condition,  if  one  cow 
abort,  many  others  in  the  same  shed  will  do  so  too.  By 
some,  however,  these  enzootics  of  abortion  are  attributed  to 
the  influence  of  certain  prevalent  bacterian  organisms 
which  are  developed  in  the  foetal  membranes  and  on  the 
vaginal  mucous  surface,  and  ordinarily  cause  a  breaking 
down  of  the  foetal  coverings.  Consequently,  if  some  of 
the  latter  be  left  about  it  may  prove  most  prejudicial,  and 


THE  FEMALE  GENERATIVE  ORGANS.  443 

rigid  separation  of  animals  which  have  aborted  from  those 
which  are  pregnant  should  be  attended  to  in  all  cases. 
It  is  remarked  that  enzootics  of  abortion  occur  most  fre- 
quently in  seasons  favorable  to  the  development  of  fungi. 
Sometimes  abortion  leads  to  flooding,  but  the  most  im- 
portant ill  effect  is  the  loss  to  the  owner,  for  not  only  is 
the  calf  dead  but  also  the  regular  secretion  of  milk  may 
be  seriously  interfered  with. 

Treatment. — After  an  abortion,  an  animal  should  be 
nursed  and  carefully  watched.  Sometimes  stimulant 
tonics  are  requisite.  As  a  rule,  the  foetal  membranes  are 
passed  investing  the  foetus,  but  if  not,  they  should  be 
removed  as  soon  as  possible.  Special  care  must  be  taken 
to  isolate  all  affected  animals,  and  since  the  irregularity 
is  very  liable  to  recur  when  pregnancy  again  advances  to 
the  stage  when  the  accident  happened,  it  is  often  better 
to  fatten  the  cow  for  sale.  We  may  conclude  that  any 
cause  seriously  altering  the  constitutional  conditions  of 
a  pregnant  animal  may  bring  about  abortion ;  some  of 
these  influences  also  directly  cause  death  of  the  foetus, 
others  do  not  do  so.  In  the  former  case  it  is  not  to  be 
regretted  that  abortion  takes  place.  The  occurrence  of 
the  false  labour  pains  must  be  met  by  antispasmodics. 

Premature  Birth  depends  upon  influences  similar  to 
those  which  give  rise  to  abortion.  We  note  it  here  as 
necessitating  special  care  in  the  rearing  of  the  calf.  The 
small  animal  thus  prematurely  brought  into  the  world  is 
deficient  m  heat-producing  power,  and  also  in  strength, 
but  in  due  time  may  progress  as  well  as  if  the  full 
period  of  gestation  had  been  completed.  In  many  cases 
the  utero- gestation  is  remarhahly  prolonged  ;  in  one 
recorded  it  amounted  to  fifty-two  weeks,  this  was  most 
remarkable ;  it  is  not  usually  found  that  the  calf  is  excep- 
tionally large  in  these  cases.  The  number  of  animals 
horn  at  one  time  from  the  same  cow  is  sometimes  very 
extraordinary.  The  most  extreme  case  was  one  in  which 
fifteen  embryos  were  found  in  the  uterus.  Cases  have 
been  known  of  animals  producing  five  calves  at  a  birth 
and  all  of  them  living. 


444  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

SuPEKFCETATiON  is  the  impregnation  of  a  second  ovum 
after  the  embryo  from  another  has  undergone  a  certain 
degree  of  development  and  is  still  in  the  uterus.  It 
sometimes  is  observed  in  the  cow. 

Extra-uterine  Conception — development  of  the  foetus 
in  situations  other  than  the  cavity  of  the  womb — is  an 
extraordinary  phenomenon  of  which  some  cases  in  the 
cow  are  recorded.  It  is  rare,  and  seems  in  this  animal 
only  to  assume  the  abdominal  form.  Exploration  per 
vaginam  vel  rectum  discloses  no  foetus,  though  the 
abdomen  has  become  enlarged  and  the  other  signs  of 
utero-gestation  have  appeared  in  due  course,  and  even 
there  are  indications  of  approaching  parturition.  The 
foetus  is  found  in  the  peritoneal  sac,  embedded  in  fibri- 
nous material,  and  often  in  a  very  advanced  stage  of  deve- 
lopment, the  neighbouring  parts  of  the  mother  taking 
upon  themselves  the  nutritive  functions  of  the  uterine 
walls. 

The  Gasarean  Operation  may  be  tried  in  these  cases,  as 
being  the  only  chance  of  relief,  for  if  the  foetus  be  re- 
tained, it  may  give  rise  to  septic  disease  of  the  mother. 
Occasionally  it  undergoes  calcification.  It  must  be  noted 
that  in  these  cases  the  position  of  the  foetus  may  be 
determined,  and  it  may  even  be  removed  without  inci- 
sion into  the  peritoneal  sac.  Nature  sometimes  adopts 
this  method,  and  throws  off  the  decomposed  foetus  in  the 
pus  of  an  abscess.  The  animal  having  been  cast  on  the 
left  side  and  the  right  leg  loosened  and  drawn  backwards, 
an  incision  is  then  to  be  made  with  the  usual  precautions, 
as  in  ruminotomy  but  about  one  foot  in  length. 
The  intestines  having  been  drawn  to  one  side,  an  incision 
must  be  made  through  the  uterine  walls  or  into  the 
tumour  in  which  the  foetus  is  embedded,  and  the  latter  is 
taken  out  and  the  umbilical  cord  ligatured  and  divided. 
The  membranes  are  then  to  be  removed,  and  the  uterine 
walls  to  be  closed  with  catgut  sutures,  the  outer  wall 
being  closed  in  the  usual  way.  This  operation  is  very 
formidable,  but  may  succeed  if  properly  performed  with 
due  antiseptic  precautions.     It  must  be  had  recourse  to. 


THE  FEMALE  GENEEATIVE  OEQANS.  445 

when  necessary,  before  the  patient's  strength  begins  to 
flag,  and  may  even  be  the  means  of  saving  both  calf  and 
mother.  It  is  also  indicated  when  some  deformity  of  the 
cow  or  calf  absolutely  prevents  expulsion  in  the  usual  way. 
The  ordinary  signs  of  parturition  are  swelling  and 
occurrence  of  milk  in  the  mammary  gland,  discharge  of 
thick  mucus  from  the  vulval  opening  with  swelling  of 
the  labia  and  relaxation  of  the  pelvic  ligaments.  Then 
the  animal  separates  from  the  herd  and  manifests  signs 
of  discomfort.  The  os  uteri  enlarges  and  gradually  there 
flows  a  watery  fluid,  liquor  allantoides.  The  animal  may 
assume  the  recumbent  position  or  remain  standing.  For 
some  time  labour-pains  will  have  been  observed ;  they 
gradually  increase  in  severity  and  frequency.  The 
amnion  is  next  seen  protruding  as  a  bladder  containing  fluid 
("  water  bladder '')  from  the  opening.  Soon  the  fore  feet  of 
the  young  animal  appear,  and  then  the  head  resting  on  the 
fore  legs ;  finally,  it  is  entirely  expelled  and  falls  slowly  to 
the  ground,  the  umbilical  cord  being  often  ruptured  in  the 
fall.  The  process  of  parturition  generally  occupies  upwards 
of  an  hour ;  its  duration  varies  with  the  constitution  of  the 
cow.  When  more  than  one  calf  is  present,  the  second  may 
be  retained  some  time  after  the  expulsion  of  the  first,  and 
the  third  after  the  second.  The  chorion  may  not  be  ex- 
pelled for  several  hours,  or  even  days,  as  its  cotyledon ary 
union  with  the  uterine  mucous  membrane  is  complex.  The 
process  of  removal  is  termed  '^  Cleansing/'  and  the  pro- 
duct the  "  After-birth."  In  case  of  Retention  op  the 
F(ETAL  Membeanes  it  is  advisable  to  remove  them,  for 
sometimes  they  decompose  in  the  cavity  of  the  uterus 
and  give  rise  to  septic  disorder  of  the  system.  It  seems 
probable  that  their  retention  is  due  to  entanglement  as  a 
result  of  uterine  contractions,  but  it  also  is  attributable 
to  want  of  the  necessary  efforts  in  consequence  of  debility. 
In  natural  cases  a  slight  recurrence  of  pains  brings  about 
their  expulsion  through  the  os  uteri,  which  is  still  un- 
relaxed,  and  when  these  do  not  seem  to  be  very  effectual 
traction  may  be  applied  on  the  protruding  portion  of 
the  cord,   the  efforts  coinciding  to  the  pains.     A  more 


446  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY.  -' 

effectual  grasp  of  the  protruding  parts  will  be  obtained 
by  rolling  them  round  a  piece  of  stick.  Regularly  applied 
traction  will  often  succeed  in  removing  them,  but  some- 
times it  is  necessary  to  introduce  the  greased  hand  into 
the  uterus  and  separate  each  cotyledon  from  its  attachment 
by  a  special  peeling  process.  This  measure  should  not  be 
resorted  to  until  all  chance  of  natural  expulsion  has  passed. 
Too  forcible  separation  may  give  rise  to  haemorrhage. 
Sometimes  retention  is  seen  after  abortion,  then,  if  left 
alone,  the  membranes  will  pass  off  in  due  time.  When 
the  foetal  appendages  commence  to  undergo  decomposi- 
tion there  is  a  foetid  discharge  from  the  vulva,  and  typhoid 
symptoms  may  be  manifested. 

AfteE'PAins  sometimes  are  present  in  cases  of  reten- 
tion of  the  foetal  membranes,  of  injury  to  the  womb,  and 
even  of  the  presence  of  an  irritant  in  the  intestines. 
When  birth  has  been  completed  the  uterus  tends  to  con- 
tract, is  checked  in  this  to  a  certain  extent  during 
passage  of  the  membranes,  but  subsequently  succeeds  in 
its  efforts,  and  thereby  tends  to  prevent  haemorrhage,  and 
to  return  to  something  like  its  state  before  pregnancy. 
Sometimes  after-pains  indicate  incipient  uterine  inflam- 
mation, but  they  generally  yield  to  an  antispasmodic  dose. 
We  have  on  record  one  case  of  Placenta  pe^via,  in  which 
a  cotyledon  was  situated  over  os  uteri. 

H^MOEEHAGE  PEE  VULVAM  is  of  two  kinds,  uteriixe  and 
vaginal  or  vulval.  In  either  case  it  may  depend  upon 
injury  either  from  the  foetus  or  from  the  instruments  used 
in  extracting  it.  If  is  indicated  by  a  constant  trickling 
of  either  arterial  or  venous  blood  from  the  external 
opening,  together  with  restlessness  and  increasing  debility 
of  the  patient.  When  the  womb  is  affected  the  flow  is 
profuse,  the  passage  painful,  and  the  blood,  when  ex- 
pelled, is  clotted.  The  usual  symptoms  of  haemorrhage 
are  present.  The  practitioner  will  generally  find  that  the 
application  of  cold  water  continuously  to  the  loins,  or  cold 
intra-uterine  injections  will  excite  contraction  and  check 
haemorrhage,  but  sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  make  use 
of    the    ordinary    haemostatic    measures.      In    the    later 


4  THE  FEMALE  GENEEATIVE  OEGANS.  447 

stages  stimulants  are  required.  Uterine  hasmorrliage  is 
generally  termed  "  bloody  flux/'  There  may  be  slight 
haemorrhage  before  parturition,  Ante-partum  Bleeding, 
due  to  the  sudden  separation  of  the  foetus  from  the 
maternal  membranes  or  to  injury ;  it  often  is  not  of 
importance,  but  sometimes  it  indicates  that  the  foetus  is 
dead.  After  birth  bleeding  may  take  place  from  the 
cut  end  of  the  cord  ;  it  does  not  last  long  and  is  unimpor- 
tant. The  peculiar  depravity  of  appetite  of  cows  in-calf  leads 
them  to  devour  all  sorts  of  extraordinary  things  ;  the  foetal 
membranes  will  often  thus  be  transferred  to  the  rumen. 

When  called  in  to  a  case  of  calving,  the  practitioner 
will  find  that  he  has  to  do  with  a  case  of  normal  peesen- 
TATION  or  abnormal.  In  the  normal  form  the  owner  has 
generally  adopted  such  measures  as  his  experience  sug- 
gests. Sometimes  his  anxiety  has  led  him  into  appre- 
hension when  the  birth  is  simply  prolonged.  In  this 
the  foetus  is  in  its  proper  position,  but  in  consequence 
of  imperfection  of  the  throes  is  not  expelled.  In  such 
cases  a  stimulant  may  lead  to  the  desired  effect,  or,  in 
move  extreme  instances,  the  careful  administration  of 
ergot  of  rye  may  be  tried.  The  latter  agent  should  never 
be  given  unless  there  is  no  impediment  in  the  passages 
and  the  os  uteri  is  relaxed.  Often  mechanical  assistance 
is  required.  The  passages  of  the  generative  organs,  and 
the  OS  uteri  especially,  having  been  found,  lubricated,  and 
relaxed,  the  hand  is  passed  into  the  uterine  cavity.  It  is 
thus  enabled  to  determine  with  a  certain  degree  of  accuracy 
the  nature  of  the  contents  and  their  position.  The  parts 
of  the  foetus  are  very  slippery,  the  fluids  are  passed  in 
considerably  quantities,  and  the  room  for  working  is  con- 
fined, hence  the  extraction  of  the  foetus  is  not  so  easy  as 
it  seems.  Looped  cords,  forceps,  hooks,  crutches,  and 
other  instruments,  are  required  to  assist  in  parturitions, 
and  the  number  of  appliances  now  used  is  very  considerable. 
In  all  these  cases  the  main  aim  must  be  to  support  the 
strength  of  the  patient  and  to  restore  or  keep  the  calf  in 
its  natural  position  and  then  to  overcome  every  impediment. 
It  is  important  never  to  lose  control  over  any  part  which 


448 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


has  once  presented  itself.     A  cord  round  tlie  lower  jaw  and 
one  round  each  fore  foot  will  be  very  useful  for  th«is  purpose. 


Fig.   93.— Normal   presentation.     Foetus   enclosed   in   membranes.     (After 

Simonds). 

False  or  Abnormal  Presentations  may  be : 

a.  Head  presented    and    one    foot. — Secure    the    foot 
and  head ;   introduce  the  hand  with  the  slipping  noose  of 


THE  FEMALE  GENERATIVE  ORGANS.  449 

a  rope  and  feel  the  flexed  other  fore  limb ;   trace  it  down- 
wards  to  the  fetlock  and   slip  the  noose  on   to  the  foot^ 


Fig.  94. — Abnormal  presentation  (b). 
(After  Simonds.) 

then  push  the  foetus   forwards  while  traction  is  brought 
to  bear  through  the  rope  on  the  flexed  limb 

6.  Head    presented    without     the    feet,  —  Secure    the 

29 


450 


BOVINE  PATHOLOGY. 


lower  jaw,   then  press   the  head   back   into   the    uterus, 
find  the  fore  legs,  and  secure  and  draw  them  upwards. 


/••^7-s., 


Jj'lO.  95. — Abnormal  presentation  (c). 
(After  Simonds.) 

c.  Head  turned  backwards,  feet  presented, — Feel  for 
the  head,  and,  if  possible,  fix  a  rope  on  the  lower  jaw  and 
also  one  round  each  of  the  feet,  or  a  hook  may  be  fixed 


THE  FEMALE  GENERATIVE  ORGANS. 


451 


in  the  eye.     Then  if  pressure  be  applied   to    the  chest, 
forcing    the  foetus    deeper  into  the   womb,  by   traction 


Fig.  96. — Abnormal  presentation  (e). 
(After  Simonds.) 

of  its  cords  the  head  may  be  brought  into  position. 
When  the  head  is  out  of  reach  embryotomy  must  be 
performed. 


462  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

d.  Head  turned  hachwards,  and  only  side  of  neck  pre- 
sented.— Proceed  as  much  as  possible  as  in  c. 


Fig.  97. — Abnormal  presentation  (/). 
(After  Simonds.) 

e.  Nape  of  neck  against  as  uteri  and  one  fore  leg  fro- 
jecting.— Secure  the  other  foot  and  continue  as  in  c. 


THE    FEMALE    GENERATIVE     ORGANS. 


453 


/.  Foetus    on     its     hacli,    vajpe    of    neck    presented. — 
Pass   a  rope  round  the  jaw  and  one   around  each  fetlock. 


Fig.  98. — Abnormal  presentation  (i). 
(After  Simonds.) 

bring  the  two  latter  round  to  the  same  side  of  the  head  ; 
support  the  withers  with  the  hand.      Then  apply  pressure 


454  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

in  a  rotatory  manner  from  below,  while  an  assistant  pulls 
the  ropes  on  the  limbs.     A  gradual  change  to  the  ordinary 


Fig.  99. — Abnormal  presentation  (J). 
(After  Simonds.) 

position  may  take  place,  otherwise  forward  pressure 
must  be  applied,  and  an  attempt  made  to  deliver  the  calf 
as  it  is. 


THE  FEMALE  GENEEATIVE  OEGANS,  455 

g,  Foetus  on  its  hack,  hind  feet  presented. — Extract 
in  position. 

h.  Foetus  on  its  hack,  hind  feet  inclined  forwards. — 
Endeavour  to  press  the  calf  downwards  and  forwards,  and 
then  flex  the  hocks  and  obtain  position  {g).  If  this  be 
not  sucessful,  amputate  at  the  hip. 

i.  Hind  feet  jprotruded. — Kemove  in  this  position. 

j.  Breech  presentation ;  hind  feet  ^projecting  down- 
luards  and  forwards, — A  case  of  great  difficulty,  there 
being  no  room  for  operations.  By  means  of  a  special 
instrument  a  cord  is  passed  round  each  thigh,  the  body 
of  the  foetus  is  then  pushed  forwards  by  means  of  the 
crutch,  and  the  loop  passed  down  to  the  fetlocks ;  then, 
the  pressure  being  still  made,  the  feet  are  drawn  by 
flexure  of  the  hocks  and  other  joints  into  the  passage 
and  removal  is  effected. 

Certain  other  presentations  have  been  noted,  but  the 
above  are  the  principal.  Besides  these  may  be  men- 
tioned some  of  a  special  character,  due  to  diseases  and 
irregularities  of  the  calf. 

Hydrocephalus  congenitalis  has  been  already  noted  (see 
p.  379),  as  also  ascites  of  the  foetus  at  time  of  parturition. 
Each  must  be  treated  by  the  process  of  tapping.  In  the 
latter  case,  the  simplest  method  will  be  found  to  be  direct 
puncture  by  means  of  a  concealed  knife  carried  in  the 
hand  into  the  uterus.  In  the  former,  the  operation  is 
performed  by  means  of  a  perforator,  the  head  being  held 
in  position  by  a  hook  fixed  in  the  eye,  but  this  is  not  always 
necessary.  Occasionally  the  foetus  is  enormously  enlarged 
by  disease,  either  general  emphysema,  or  the  condition 
known  as  polysarca  or  oedema  congenitalis.  Emphysema 
generally  results  from  decomposition  of  a  dead  foetus, 
from  which  the  gas  must  be  removed  by  incisions. 
Polysarca  is  an  enlarged  fatty  condition  of  the  foetus 
not  often  seen;  cedema  or  anasarca  causes  premature 
birth. 

Irregularities  of  the  foetus  comprise  the  various  forms 
of  MONSTROSITIES,  of  which  the  principal  seen  in  the  cow 
are  as  follows : 


456  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

1.  Anidiaiis, — Rounded  masses  of    living  matter^  con- 


FiG.  100. — Congenital  ascites,  causing  difficult  parturition. 
(After  Siinonds.) 


THE    FEMALE     GENERATIVE    OEQANS, 


457 


sisting  of  bones,   muscles,    vessels,   &c.,   sustained  bj  an 
umbilical  cord. 

2.   Celosomians. — Abdominal     walls     deficient,     bowels 
loose  in  amniotic  cavity. 


Fig.  101. — A  special  tbrm  of  hydro-  PiG.  102. — Harelip.  Schistoce- 

cephalus  of  the  calf.  (From  Flera-  phalusfissilabrus.(From  Flem- 

ing's *  Veterinary  Obstetrics.')  ing's  'Veterinary  Obstetrics.'} 

8.  Ectopia  cordis   (see  Heart). 

4.  Harelip  or  cleft-palate  forms ;  tlie  separation  usually 
extends  tbrougli  the  whole  face. 

5.  Campylorrhachides. — Twisted  condition  of  the  spine, 
so  that  often  all  four  feet  project  forwards. 

6.  Dicephalians,  or  double-headed  animals.  The 
division  may  simply  comprise  the  faces  or  there  may  be 
two  distinct  skulls. 

7.  Hermaphrodites  with  a  confused  mixture  of  male  and 
female  organs,  or  external  generative  organs  of  the  male 
and  internal  of  the  female,  or  vice  versa. 

8.  Megalomelus  perissodactylus. — Before  us  is  a  speci- 
men in  which  the  rudimentary  metatarsal  bears  a  distinct 
digit,  as  is  sometimes  the  case  in  the  horse. 

9.  Schistomehis. — In  a  case  recorded,  the  hind  limb 
was  cleft  up  to  the  hock. 


458  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

10.  Twin  calves  J  united  more  or  less  intimately. 

11.  Folymelians,  many-limbed  forms. 

We  have  mentioned  some  of  the  above  forms  more  on 
account  of  their  curious  characters  than  of  their  practical 
importance  in  parturition.  These  peculiar  creatures  used 
to  be  termed  Lusus  Naturce,  but  recently  the  study  of 
them.  Teratology,  has  been  remarkably  advanced  by  the 
experimental  method,  and  it  has  been  shown  that  they 
are  not  '^  freaks/'  but  produced  according  to  definite 
laws.  Thus  they  may  depend  upon  pressure  as  preventing 
the  development  of  any  part,  upon  amputation  performed 
by  a  twist  of  the  umbilical  cord,  upon  budding  of  the 
ovum,  or  upon  exaggerated  or  arrested  development.  The 
various  kinds  which  occur  in  domesticated  animals  are 
treated  of  at  length  by  Fleming  in  his  '  Obstetrics,^  where 
he  fills  a  great  blank  which  long  existed  in  English 
veterinary  literature.  Monstrosities  are  of  very  frequent 
occurrence  in  the  cow,  and  cases  of  double  or  even  triple 
calf,  twisted  spine,  dicephalus,  and  polymelianism  may 
give  rise  to  difficult  parturition  and  necessitate  adjustment, 
and  often  embryotomy.  Some  monsters  are  unable  to  live 
independently  of  the  parent,  others  are  unable  to  stand 
the  pressure  exerted  upon  them  in  expulsion,  as  those  with 
ectopia  cordis.  Many  live  and  are  much  appreciated  by 
itinerant  showmen.  Sometimes  it  is  most  astonishing 
what  peculiar  bodies  can  be  expelled  without  much 
trouble. 

Whenever  the  foetus  cannot  be  removed  by  ordinary 
traction,  embryotomy  must  be  tried.  It  consists  in  the 
reduction  of  the  size  of  the  foetus  by  removal  of  parts,  which 
are  separated  with  a  special  concealed  knife  (Fig.  103),  or 
by  means  of  a  curved  pointed  blade  which  has  a  ring  for  its 
handle  (Fig.  105),  and  thus  may  be  fixed  on  the  middle 
finger  and  carried  in  the  hollow  of  the  hand  into  the  uterus. 
Operations  with  these  knives  are  limited  by  the  small 
space  in  the  pregnant  uterus,  and  by  the  cramped  state  of 
the  arms  of  the  operator  from  the  pressure  exerted  upon 
them,  particularly  during  the  uterine  throes.  Sometimes 
the  chain  saw  (Fig.  106),  will  be  found  useful.     The  fore 


THE  FEMALE  GENEEATIVE  ORGANS. 


459 


limbs  are  the  parts  most  frequently  removed  in  this  way. 
An  incision  is  made  through  the  skin  from  as  high  up  as 
possible  longitudinally  downwards   as   far  as   the  fetlock. 


Fia.  104!. — Gowan's  Knife. 


Fig.  105— Finger  Hook. 


Tig.  103.  — Common 
Embryotomy  Knife. 


Fig.  106. — Chain  Saw,  with  removable  handles,  for  embryotomy. 

where  a  circular  division  of  the  skin  is  made.  The 
subcutaneous  areolar  tissue  is  then  divided  as  much  as 
possible,  first  with  the  knife,  then  with  the  fingers.  The 
limb  is  then  removed  by  a  forcible  steady  pull,  its  muscular 
attachments  to  the  trunk  giving  way.  The  skin  can  sub- 
sequently be  used  for  traction,  a  rope  being  fixed  to  it,  and 
also,  in  some  cases  of  embryotomy,  serves  to  protect  sharp 


460  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

bony  edges.  Care  must  be  taken  with  the  embryotomy 
knife,  as  with  other  instruments,  lest  injury  of  the  uterine 
walls  result  from  a  false  stroke  or  a  slip.  This  operation 
is  generally  performed  when  the  cow  is  in  the  recumbent 
position,  and  she  may  be  supported  by  occasional  doses 
of  stimulants.  It  must  be  resorted  to  only  when  other 
means  fail,  the  foetus  being  too  large  for  the  passage  or 
inaccessible  otherwise.  It  is  generally  best  to  sacrifice 
the  life  of  the  foetus  to  save  that  of  the  mother.  In  all 
obstetric  operations  great  care  must  be  exercised  to  avoid 
injury  of  the  uterine  walls ;  the  feet  when  moved,  must  be 
taken  into  the  hand  and  then  gently  drawn  round.  Again, 
it  is  always  necessary  to  carefully  examine  the  contents 
of  the  uterus.  The  two  legs  projecting  with  the  head, 
may  be  not  such  as  are  most  convenient  for  easy  removal, 
as  seen  in  cases  of  curved  spine  and  many-limbed  animals. 
Again,  the  projecting  feet  may  belong  to  distinct  animals. 

Twins. — The  presence  of  two  calves  in  the  uterus  being 
so  frequent,  we  should  always  after  removal  of  one  look 
for  a  second.  They  generally  lie  in  reverse  positions ;  one 
being  presented  in  the  ordinary  way,  the  other  with  its 
hind  legs  first.  Twins  are  usually  small,  and  therefore 
do  not  cause  much  difficulty  in  expulsion.  They  are  apt 
to  become  fixed  together  in  the  genital  passages.  In  such 
cases,  the  state  of  affairs  having  been  clearly  ascertained, 
the  fore  legs  of  the  normally  presented  calf  are  to  be  secured 
with  ropes,  and,  these  being  kept  tight,  the  other  calf  is 
forced  back  into  the  uterus.  The  first  can  then  be 
removed  in  the  usual  way,  and  the  second  will  generally 
follow. 

Diseases  of  the  foetal  membranes  are  not  very  fre- 
quent, but  some  few  are  on  record. 

Cases  of  Dropsy  op  the  Amnion — Hydramnios — are 
some-what  often  seen  in  the  cow,  they  give  rise  to  undue 
distension,  which  may  lead  to  abortion,  or  to  over-dis- 
tension of  the  uterine  walls  with  corresponding  inertia. 
The  accumulated  fluid  is  described  as  sometimes  resem- 
bling Vitreous  Humour  in  its  characters.  The  causes  of 
this  condition  are   ill-ascertained,  and    its  diagnosis  from 


THE  FEMALE  QENEEATIVE  OEGANS.  461 

Hydrops  Uteri  is  not  frequently  possible.  Thus,  as  in 
that  disorder,  the  accumulated  fluid  must  be  evacuated 
through  the  os  uteri.  In  the  '  Veterinary  Journal,'  vol.  iii, 
October,  is  recorded  a  case  of  firm  union  of  the  foetus, 
membranes,  and  uterine  walls,  probably  resulting  from 
endometritis. 

Haie  balls — ^GAGEOPiLES — are  occasionally  seen  in  the 
liquor  amnii.  This  fluid  consists  largely  of  the  products 
of  excretory  action  of  the  skin;  the  aggregation  of  the 
hairs  results  from  the  regular  movements  of  the  mem- 
brane which  are  known  to  take  place  in  the  living 
animal. 

The  cause  of  difficult  parturition  often  resides  in  the 
cow.  The  passages  in  a  normal  state  may  be  too  small 
for  the  calf,  as  when  a  small  cow  has  been  put  to  a  very 
large  bull,  or  the  parts  may  not  have  sufficiently  relaxed. 
In  the  latter  case  enough  time  may  not  have  been  allowed 
for  relaxation  of  the  os  to  take  place,  then  the  practitioner 
must  wait  and  mark  the  progress  of  the  case.  Often 
there  is  some  actual  impediment  present.  Thus,  there 
may  have  been  fracture  of  the  os  innominatum,  with  a 
considerable  deposition  of  callus,  or  some  exostosis  or 
other  tumour  ^pressing  upon  the  genital  passages.  Such 
cases  are  most  formidable  and  generally  necessitate  opera- 
tive interference. 

There  may  be  tumoues  in  the  genital  passages  ;  such 
growths  in  the  vagina  are  of  a  fibromatous,  lipomatous,  or 
serous  cystic  character.  They  must  be  incised  if  cystic, 
and  removed  by  ligament  or  the  ecraseur  otherwise.  They 
are  often  appreciable  only  on  manual  exploration.  Of 
course  the  progress  of  parturition  is  gravely  affected  both 
by  the  position  and  size  of  such  growths.  Another  cause 
preventing  expulsion  of  the  foetus  is  impeeeoeate  vagina, 
due  either  to  congenital  malformation  or  to  inflammation 
of  that  passage.  This  may  be  complete  or  partial.  In 
the  former  case  there  is  retention  of  the  products  of 
oestrum,  and  sooner  or  later  severe  straining  sets  in.  The 
state  of  the  parts  can  be  detected  on  exploration,  and  the 
animal  generally  has  not   been  known  to  take  the  bull.. 


462  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

In  the  latter,  impregnation  may  occur,  and  the  excessive 
diminution  in  size  of  the  vaginal  passage  not  be  detected 
until  the  time  of  parturition,  when  it  may  be  necessary  even 
to  perform  the  Caesarian  section.  In  the  'Edinburgh 
Yeterinary  Journal,'  vol.  ii,  p.  283,  is  given  a  case  in 
which  a  hand  extended  across  the  os  uteri,  probably  the 
result  of  inflammation  of  the  parts.  It  required  to  be 
divided  before  parturition  could  be  effected.  The  os  uteri 
may  be  affected  with  spasm,  but  this  is  not  very  fre- 
quent; rigid  occlusion  of  the  orifice  is  more  frequently 
due  to  STEICTUEE,  in  which  the  muscular  walls  undergo 
various  changes,  as  the  fibrous,  and  especially  the  carti- 
laginous. Then  labour  pains  occur  in  due  course,  but  do 
not  result  in  expulsion  of  the  foetus,  and  on  exploration 
the  hard  and  firmly  constricted  condition  of  the  os  is 
determined.  This  state  seems  sometimes  to  be  hereditary, 
it  may  also  result  from  injury.  The  fingers  and  thCimb 
of  the  hand  in  the  vagina  having  been  approximated,  an 
attempt'  is  to  be  made  to  insert  the  hand  as  a  wedge 
through  the  opening ;  this  will  seldom  be  accomplished. 
The  instrument  suggested  for  lithecstasy  might  be 
tried,  or  incisions  made  through  the  cervix  in  various 
directions  by  means  of  the  concealed  bistoury.  In  cases 
which  resist  these  means  the  Caesarian  operation  must  be 
tried  or  the  patient  slaughtered.  Sometimes  the  os  is 
unyielding  and  incapable  of  relaxation  in  consequence  of 
disease  of  a  cancerous  or  scrofulous  nature.  These  "  Soft 
Steictuees  ''  of  Macgillivray  require  to  be  treated  by  inci- 
sion, an  operation  known  as  vaginal  hysterotomy.  This  may 
give  rise  to  much  haemorrhage,  but  will  not  usually  do  so. 
When  the  narrowing  of  the  os  is  due  to  spasm,  there  are 
generally  powerful  uterine  contractions,  and  the  parts  are 
regular,  tender,  and  somewhat  yielding.  Antispasmodics 
may  be  had  recourse  to  or  even  the  abstraction  of  blood, 
manual  dilatation,  or  the  lithecstasy  apparatus  may  be 
tried.  Usually  the  spasm  will  relax  in  time.  Warm- 
water  vaginal  injections  are  indicated. 

An  iMPEEvious  STATE  OP  Os  Uteei  has  been  observed, 
probably  it  is  due  to  the  throwing  out  of  false  membranes 


THE     FEMALE    GENERATIVE   ORGANS.  463 

as  a  result  of  inflammation.  In  the  virgin  animal  it  gives 
rise  to  uterine  dropsy  from  retention  of  fluid  ;  in  the 
pregnant  cow  there  is  generally  a  small  opening  through 
which  impregnation  has  taken  place.  This  must  be 
treated  by  incision  and  dilatation. 

Persistent  Hymen  is  sometimes  a  cause  of  impeded 
parturition  in  the  cow.  It  is  found  to  be  a  fibrous  band 
extending  across  the  vulvo-vaginal  passage^  just  above  the 
meatus  urinarius.  This  must  be  divided,  and  then  no 
further  difficulty  in  expulsion  will  be  experienced. 

Torsion  or  the  Neck  op  the  Womb,  or  of  the  anterior 
part  of  the  vagina,  is  rather  common  in  the  cow,  pro- 
bably on  account  of  the  special  position  of  the  cornua, 
which  tend  to  *^  heel  over  '^  where  the  extra  weight  of  a 
foetus  is  in  one  of  them.  This  constitutes  the  predispos- 
ing cause,  but  blows,  falls,  and  injuries  of  other  kinds, 
are  the  most  frequent  exciting  influences.  The  twisting 
may  be  complete,  incomplete,  or  double. 

Symptoms. — Labour-pains  in  due  course,  but  not  lead- 
ing to  protrusion  of  the  amnion;  violent  abdominal 
spasms;  extreme  indications  of  abdominal  pain.  The 
hand  introduced  into  the  vagina  meets  an  impediment, 
and  recognises  the  twist  in  the  spiral  arrangement  of  the 
walls  at  ^  the  anterior  part.  If  these  conditions  be  not 
relieved  remission  of  the  labour-pains  occurs,  and  death 
ultimately  results  from  asthenia.  The  direction  of  torsion 
may  be  determined  by  the  way  in  which  the  back  of 
the  hand  introduced  into  the  twist  inclines ;  when  to  the 
left,  it  is  a  case  of  left  torsion  and  vice  versa. 

Prognosis  in  such  cases  is  unfavorable,  but  not  abso- 
lutely hopeless.  They  generally  necessitate  some  severe 
operation.  Rolling  the  cow  in  a  direction  opposite  to 
that  of  the  twist,  the  uterus  with  the  foetus  in  it  being 
as  much  as  possible  retained  in  position  by  means  of  the 
hand  introduced  through  the  os  has  been  tried.  Sometimes 
the  strain  on  the  hand  is  found  to  increase,  then  the  body 
must  be  turned  in  the  opposite  direction.  When  relief  has 
taken  place,  there  is  generally  an  escape  of  liquor  amnii. 
Failing  this  means  the  Caesarian  operation  muvst  be  per. 


464  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

formed.  Sometimes  a  slight  torsion  may  be  counteracted 
by  manipulative  means  per  vaginam,  any  protruding  por- 
tion of  the  foetus  being  grasped  and  rotated.  In  other 
cases  abdominal  section  with  manual  restoration  of  the 
uterus  to  its  position  has  been  tried  with  success,  but  the 
operation  is  difficult. 

Dilatation  op  Os  Uteei. — Post-partum  the  os  in  due 
time  contracts,  but  sometimes  this  is  not  so.  This  is 
generally  associated  with  imperfect  contraction  of  the 
main  portion  of  the  uterus.  It  indicates  a  want  of 
tone,  and  may  be  generally  overcome  by  cold-water 
applications. 

The  Imperfect  Post-paetum  Oonteaction  op  the  Uteeus 
may  be  associated  with  haemorrhage,  for  diminution  in 
the  volume  of  the  organ  normally  suffices  to  prevent 
bleeding  from  the  slightly  lacerated  cotyledons.  In  such 
a  case  it  may  be  treated  by  cold-water  injections  either 
into  the  uterus  or  the  rectum.  But  when  unassociated 
with  such  a  complication,  it  may  be  overcome  by 
administration  of  stimulants,  or  even  small  doses  of  ergot 
of  rye. 

"When  Inertia  op  the  Uteeine  Walls  takes  place  in 
the  pregnant  animal,  it  is  apt  to  lead  to  a  want  of  re- 
sponse to  the  ordinary  indications  for  expulsion  of  the 
foetus,  and  therefore  to  prolonged  retention.  Then  the 
young  animal  may  continue  to  grow,  and  thus  become 
large  enough  to  cause  some  difficulty  in  expulsion,  or  it 
may  die,  and  either  decompose  and  cause  septic  disorder 
of  the  cow,  or,  if  the  os  uteri  prevent  access  of  air,  it 
is  apt  to  undergo  dry  gangrene  and  mummify. 

Sometimes  the  decomposed  foetal  remains  are  expelled 
gradually  as  a  discharge  jper  vulvam ;  in  one  case  alluded 
to  by  Youatt,  expulsion  took  place  per  anumj  the  caecum 
and  uterus  having  contracted  adhesions  and  become 
connected  by  a  fistula.  The  tincture  of  the  ergot 
of  rye  is  a  most  valuable  excitant  of  the  walls  of  the 
uterus  to  contraction.  In  cases  of  prolonged  parturition, 
the  uterus  may  lose  its  power  and  remain  in  a  relaxed 
state  with  the  foetus   still  in  its  cavity  and   labour-pains 


THE  FEMALE  GENERATIVE  OEGANS.         465 

ceased.  In  sucli  a  case  as  this,  when  the  passages  are 
clear,  the  use  of  ergot  is  indicated. 

FuEGE  UTEEiNijs. — Sometimes  cows  remain  as  it  were 
in  a  constant  state  of  oestrum,  always  ready  to  receive 
attentions  from  the  bull,  in  a  highly  excitable  condition, 
and  often  with  a  slight  discharge  trickling  constantly 
from  the  lower  part  of  the  urino-generative  aperture. 
The  vaginal  mucous  membrane  is  congested.  These 
animals  are  termed  "  hullers/'  and  the  furor  is  not  always 
to  be  associated  with  uterine  disorders.  Thus,  it  is  a  sign 
of  dropsy  of  the  ovaries,  of  inflammation  of  the  vulvo- 
vaginal membranes,  and  often  of  the  presence  of  tumours 
in  the  generative  passages.  It  is  most  frequently  at- 
tributable to  scrofulous  disease  of  the  uterine  walls,  or 
some  other  chronic  inflammatory  action  in  the  uterus. 

Hydeops  uteei. — Though  many  cases  of  retention  of 
oestral  products  have  undoubtedly  been  mistaken  for  true 
dropsy,  some  instances  of  the  latter  state  are  recorded. 
These  occur  in  animals  supposed  to  be  pregnant ;  but 
when  distension  of  the  uterus  has  taken  place,  the  os 
opens  and  there  is  a  spontaneous  evacuation  of  a 
watery,  or  more  frequently  a  semi-purulent  or  sanguineous, 
fluid.  This  gives  relief,  and  is  succeeded  by  a  gradual 
reaccumulation  and  a  recurrence  of  the  false  pregnancy. 
Trying  for  the  foetus  in  the  usual  manner  is  ineffectual  in 
these  cases,  and  there  are  several  signs  of  this  not  being  true 
pregnancy.  The  pent-up  fluid  should  be  evacuated  as  soon 
as  the  disease  has  been  diagnosed.  Then  the  uterus  should 
be  washed  out  frequently  by  syringing  it  with  a  weak 
solution  of  carbolic  acid  or  chloride  of  lime.  In  the 
meanwhile  the  patient  should  be  well  fed  and  nursed,  for 
the  disease  results  from  debility,  injuries,  and  slight  in- 
flammation. Tonic  agents  (especially  mineral)  will  prove 
beneficial. 

Inflammation  op  the  Uteeus  may  be  of  three  kinds, 
according  as  the  external,  middle,  or  internal  coat  is  the 
main  seat  of  disease. 

Endometeitis. — Inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane 
of    the  uterus  results   from   injuries   during    parturition, 

30 


466  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

and  occasionally  perhaps  from  abortion,  or  exposure 
when  the  animal  is  heated.  It  is  not  very  frequent 
nor  urgent,  but  during  its  course  there  may  be  false 
pains,  and  usually  the  products  of  inflammatory  action 
accumulate  in  the  cavity  and  so  cause  distension.  Thus 
this  disorder  leads  to  dropsy  of  the  uterus,  but  sometimes 
the  products  pass  off  as  a  continuous  discharge.  In  some 
cases  the  lining  membrane  is  much  disorganised  by 
ulceration,  there  is  then  frequent  straining  and  rapid 
loss  of  flesh.  In  cases  of  protracted  labour  the  discharges 
from  the  generative  passages  become  acrid  and  may  cause 
endometritis  by  retention.  This  acridity  is  proved  by  the 
ectkymatous  disease  which  so  frequently  affects  the  arms 
of  veterinary  ohstetristsj  and  which  is  fully  described  by 
Professor  Gamgee  in  the  '  Edinburgh  Veterinary  Review,^' 
vol.  i,  p.  23,  where  a  beautiful  illustration  of  the  affected 
arm  of  the  professor  is  also  given.  Endometritis  must  be 
treated  by  antiseptic  injections  and  careful  nursing. 
When  it  occurs  during  pregnancy,  separation  of  the  fcetal 
membranes  from  the  lining  of  the  uterus  will  cause 
death  of  the  foetus  in  some  cases.  Inflammation  of  the 
muscular  coat  of  the  uterus  without  the  other  layers  being 
affected  is  seldom  or  never  seen, 

Meteo-Peritonitis  or  Puerperal  Peritonitis  (Barlow). — 
We  have  already  alluded  to  septicaemia  in  general,  and 
noted  that  it  especially  occurs  in  connection  with  partu- 
rition and  its  accidents.  The  substance  of  the  womb 
being  inflamed,  the  peritoneum  generally  is  involved,  and 
the  diseased  action  spreads  remarkably  rapidly,  and  in- 
volves a  considerable  extent  of  surface.  Cases  of  this 
kind  used  to  be  confounded  with  true  parturient  apoplexy, 
but  are  now  diagnosed  with  certainty  since  the  symptoms 
differ  in  many  important  particulars.  Thus  together  with 
the  general  signs  of  disorder  succeeded  by  those  of  fever, 
there  is  found  a  peculiarly  hard  quick  pulse,  which  also 
is  frequent.  The  respirations  as  the  disease  progresses 
becomes  quickened,  frequent,  and  often  thoracic.  There 
is  straining  and  the  passage  of  a  chocolate-coloured  fluid 
through  the  vulval  opening,  and  the   lining  membrane  of 


THE  FEMALE  GENEEATIVE  ORGANS.  4G7 

this  part  is  of  a  dark-purple  colour,  the  labia  being 
small,  contracted,  and  oedematous.  The  cessation  of 
secretion  of  milk  is  generally  sudden  and  the  udder 
becomes  soft  and  flaccid.  In  the  later  stages  the  pulse 
becomes  very  rapid  and  imperceptible,  the  rumen  dis- 
tended with  gas,  the  patient  comatose.  There  are  usually 
signs  of  abdominal  pain  of  rather  an  acute  character. 
The  prostration  of  strength  is  rapid  and  the  animal  dies 
from  asthenia. 

On  post-mortem  examination ,  the  cavity  of  the  uterus  is 
found  to  be  small  and  to  contain  chocolate-coloured  fluid. 
The  diminution  in  size  results  from  the  thickening  of  the 
walls  of  the  organ  as  a  result  of  deposits.  Blood  extra- 
vasations are  to  be  seen  beneath  the  peritoneum  which 
exhibits  the  various  marks  of  inflammation.  The  veins  of 
the  uterus  contain  dark  blood  in  a  coagulated  state  and 
ecchymoses  are  visible  on  many  of  the  serous  membranes, 
and  sometimes  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  labia.  Ecchy- 
moses have  been  noted  in  the  cranial  membranes. 

Causes. — Such  cases  supervene  on  retention  of  the 
after-birth  or  of  the  foetus.  Wounds  received  during 
assistance  in  parturition,  especially  in  protracted  cases, 
prolapsus,  inversion  of  the  uterus,  also  exposure  during 
or  after  parturition,  or  over-driving  also  cause  them,  ple- 
thoric animals  being  predisposed.  It  usually  manifests  its 
first  symptoms  from  a  half  to  three  days  after  parturition. 

Results, — Most  frequently  runs  a  rapid  course  and  ends 
in  death  from  blood  poisoning.  Occasionally  very  rapid 
resolution  occurs,  and  sometimes  the  attack  degenerates  into 
a  chronic  endometritis  tending  to  flooding,  leucorrhoea,  and 
dropsical  accumulations  in  the  womb. 

Treatment. — The  system  of  the  patient  must  be  sus- 
tained by  stimulant  tonics,  especially  the  tinctures  of  the 
vegetable  bitters,  and  nourishing  soft  diet  must  be  sup- 
plied to  her  for  sometimes  the  appetite  remains  after 
the  commencement  of  the  attack.  All  debilitating  in- 
fluences must  be  avoided,  and  it  is  questionable  whether 
administration  of  cathartics  is  beneficial.  However,  we 
deem  this  advisable,  for  it  is  an  advantage  to  keep  those 


'468 


BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 


important  excretory  organs,  the  bowels,  in  free  action ;  the 
influence  of  the  cathartic  is  derivative,  and  the  peritonitis 
is  not  so  diffused  as  in  idiopathic  cases  of  that  disorder. 
Local  treatment  comprises  the  administration  of  belladonna 
or  other  anodyne  enemas  and  of  carbolic  intrauterine  injec- 
tions. All  endeavours  must  be  made  to  remove  decom- 
posing membranes  or  the  remains  of  a  foetus,  but  the 
practitioner  must  be  most  careful  not  to  injure  his  arms 
or  hands  with  foetal  bones,  nor  to  work  in  such  cases  with 
an  exposed  wound  on  the  parts  brought  into  contact  with 
the  decomposing  material.  The  hands  may  be  advanta- 
geously lubricated  with  carbolised  soft  soap.  Neglect  of 
these  precautions  has  proved  fatal  to  some  country  prac- 
titioners. 

Lacerations  of  the  Uterine  Walls  result  from  ex- 
cessively powerful  throes  in  different  cases  of  parturition, 
from  wounds  either  by  the  foot  of  the  foetus  or  by  instru- 
ments during  delivery,  and  sometimes  as  a  direct  result 
of  other  forms  of  injury.  These  lacerations  may  be  partial 
or  complete.  In  some  cases  of  metritis  abscesses  form  in 
the  thickness  of  the  coats,  and  in  time  burst  into  the  cavity 
of  the  uterus,  leaving  behind  them  spaces,  which  become 
fistulous  in  consequence  of  the  constant  entry  of  the  acrid 
uterine  discharges.  Thus  Uterine  Fistula  is  established. 
The  symptoms  are  those  indicative  of  endometritis,  and 
are  usually  slight.  Sometimes  we  have  a  true  fistulous 
communication,  between  the  uterus  and  the  intestines  for 
instance.  We  can  only  treat  such  cases  as  suggested  for 
endometritis.  Perfect  or  complete  laceration  is  Rupture 
OF  THE  Uterus,  which  may  occur  either  before  parturition, 
during  labour,  or  after  delivery.  When  it  takes  place 
before  or  during  parturition  it  generally  results  in  the 
falling  of  the  foetus  into  the  abdominal  cavity.  A 
remarkable  form  of  this  lesion  is  noticed  by  Fleming,  after 
Count  Ercolani  of  Bologna,  in  which  transverse  rupture  of 
the  uterus  (either  the  body  or  one  cornu)  results  in  the 
hanging  of  the  anterior  separated  part  of  the  organ  as  a 
foetus -containing  cyst,  supported  by  the  broad  ligament 
below  the  lumbar  region.     The  development  of  the  foetus 


THE  FEMALE  GENERATIVE  ORGANS. 


469 


continues ;  probably  the  rupture  is  gradual.  It  has  not 
been  observed  in  this  country.  Rupture  is  often  seen  in 
the  everted  uterus,  but  the  organ  may  be  returned  and 
the  case  recover.  It  is  generally  considered  unneces- 
sary to  insert  sutures  in  such  cases.  The  reparative 
powers  of  the  uterus  seem  very  extraordinary,  for  the 
organ  contracts  after  evacuation  of  its  contents,  and  thus 
the  edges  of  any  wound  are  kept  close  together  and  in  a 
condition  favorable  to  rapid  healing.  Protrusion  of  the 
small  intestines  through  the  rupture  (which  generally  is 
at  one  side  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  organ)  is  some- 
times seen.  The  symptoms  of  rupture  of  the  womb  are 
those  indicative  of  collapse ;  sometimes  there  is  a  flow  of 
blood  or  sanguineous  fluid  through  the  vulva,  but  this 
symptom  may  be  absent.  When  the  foetus  has  fallen  in  the 
abdominal  cavity  there  will  be  sudden  alteration  in  the 
shape  of  the  abdomen  and  in  the  position  of  the  foetus. 
In  such  cases  all  that  can  be  done  is  to  perform  the 
Caesarian  operation  as  early  as  possible;  in  others  all  our 
efforts  must  be  directed  to  supporting  the  strength  of 
the  patient  and  counteracting  untoward  results. 


Fia.  107. — Portion  of  chorion  with  placentulae.     Cow.     1.  Chorion.     2.  Pla- 
centulsB.     (From  Fleming's  *  Veterinary  Obstetrics.') 

Prolapsus  vel  Inversio    uteri — '^  Falling   of  the  read 
or  calf-bed  '^ — the  turning  inside-out  of  the  uterus — may 


470  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

be  complete  or  incomplete.     In  tlie  latter  case  the  cornua 
are  generally  not  involved,  but  even   they  may  be   par- 


FiG.  108.— Cotyledon  of  a  cow's  uterus.  a  a.  Surface  of  foetal  chorion. 
b  b.  Blood-vessels  of  foetal  chorion,  c  c.  Surface  of  uterine  mucous 
membranes,  dd.  Blood-vessels  of  the  same.  f.  Secretion  from  utricular 
glands.     (From  Fleming's  '  Veterinary  Obstetrics.') 

tially  inverted.  The  uterus  with  its  mucous  surface  and 
maternal  cotyledons  protrudes  through  the  vulval  opening 
and  hangs  downwards  for  a  distance  varying  with  the 
severity  of  the  case.  It  generally  becomes  strangulated 
by  the  action  of  the  sphincter  vulvae  or  the  narrowness 
of  the  passage,  and  thus  tends  to  increase  largely  in  size 
in  consequence  of  infiltration  of  serum  into  its  substance 
and  accumulation  of  blood  in  its  Vessels.  It  generally 
is  somewhat  lacerated  as  a  result  of  exposure  to  external 
injury,  and  even  tearing  up  by  the  patient ;  sometimes 
rupture  of  its  walls  has  taken  place.  To  allow  the 
inversion,  the  broad  ligaments  have  generally  become 
lacerated  and  the  vagina  may  be  involved  with  the  uterus. 
The  patient  strains  constantly,  and  thus  tends  to  aggravate 
the  case.  This  accident  occurs  at  or  shortly  after  par- 
turition and  may  result  from  excessive  spasmodic  con- 
traction of  the  uterine  walls,  non-contraction  of  os  uteri 
post-partum,  adhesion  of  the  foetal  membranes  to  the 
walls  of  the  uterus,  and  it  is  especially  frequent  in 
animals  in  a  state  of  debility. 


THE    FEMALE    GENERATIVE    OEGANS.  471 

Treatment  comprises  restoration  of  the  organ,  its 
retention,  and  the  counteraction  of  the  ill  consequences 
of  the  accident.  Restoration  may  be  effected  either  from 
the  neck  or  from  the  fundus,  or  by  both  these  methods 
combined.  As  a  preliminary  measure  the  surface  of  the 
womb  must  be  cleansed  from  all  foreign  bodies,  especially 
also  from  adhering  portions  of  the  foetal  membranes.  The 
animal  must  be  placed  with  the  hind  part  of  the  body 
raised  and  kept  in  that  position,  which  is  important  not 
only  as  a  means  of  facilitating  return  of  the  part  but 
also  of  retention.  The  protruding  organ  must  be  sup- 
ported by  a  towel  held  on  each  side  during  the  process 
of  cleansing  and  return.  In  the  latter  effort  the  fist 
must  be  closed  and  applied  to  the  fundus  of  the  organ 
which  must  be  pressed  inwards  at  the  intervals  between 
the  throes  and  prevented  from  return  during  their  efforts, 
which  must  be  prevented  as  much  as  possible  by  distrac- 
tion of  the  patient's  attention  and  pressure  on  the  loins. 
While  the  pressure  is  brought  to  bear  on  the  fundus  an 
endeavour  must  be  made  to  gradually  return  the  neck,  for 
a  combination  of  the  two  methods  is  decidedly  the  most 
satisfactory.  When  the  protruded  uterus  is  very  much 
swollen,  it  may  be  reduced  in  size  by  cold-water  applica- 
tions and  by  pressure  evenly  applied  from  the  fundus 
towards  the  neck.  This  may  be  best  accomplished  by  an 
Esmarch's  bandage,  which  also  assists  in  the  return  of 
the  organ,  but  it  may  be  effected  by  fixing  a  carbolised 
cloth  around  the  protruding  organ  and  manipulating  in  a 
manner  which  may  be  learned  rather  from  observation 
than  description.  The  fist  with  the  fundus  must  be 
passed  in  so  far  as  not  to  cause  great  increase  in  the 
expulsive  efforts,  and  must  be  kept  in  position  for  some 
time.  Of  retentive  means  the  most  important  are  dis- 
tension of  the  uterus  with  some  bland  mucilaginous  fluid, 
with  an  antispasmodic  dissolved  in  it ;  the  use  of  a 
special  retentive  appliance  termed  a  pessary.  These  are  of 
various  kinds,  but  the  most  readily  available  and  simple 
of  all  is  an  ordinary  glass  bottle.  The  concavity  on  the 
floor  of  this  fits  well   against  the  os  uteri,  and  its   neck 


472 


BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 


may  be  fixed  at  the  vulval  aperture  to  tlie  truss  or 
sutures.  The  narrowness  of  the  neck  allows  urine  to 
pass  freely,  and  its  rounded  edges  and  smooth  surface  render 
it  very  unlikely  to  cause  irritation  (see  '  Veterinarian,^ 
1880,  p.  296).  In  cases  where  it  is  found  impossible  other- 
wise to  return  the  organ,  it  has  been  suggested  to  place 
the  animal  on  its  back  and  elevate  the  hind  quarters  by 
means  of  pulleys.  When  the  spasms  are  excessive  large 
doses  of  opium  are  beneficial  to  allay  this  undue  straining. 
On  return  of  the  womb  it  has  been  suggested  to  place 
metallic  sutures  through  the  os  uteri,  but  these  may  prove 
a  source  of  irritation,  therefore  the  application  of  a  truss 
(such  as  Gowing^s,  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure  109) 
is  suggested.  Trusses  for  this  purpose  are  of  various  kinds, 
and  some  are  valuable  as  being  composed  of  a  simple 
rope  specially  arranged  (see  Fig.  110).  For  a  description  of 
these  we  must  consult  Fleming^s  ^  Obstetrics."'  Sometimes 
it  is  deemed  advisable  to  apply  a  truss  in  every  case  after 
parturition;  this  preventive  means  should  certainly  be  taken 
with  all  debilitated  animals  and  those  which  have  previously 
suffered  from   prolapsus.      Standing  on  a  floor   slanting 


Fig.  109. — Gowing's  Truss  for  prolapsus  uteri.     (After  Simonds.) 


forwards  is   always   a  useful  precaution  after  parturition. 
Some  practitioners  insert  sutures  through  the  labia  instead 


THE  FEMALE  GENERATIVE  ORGANS.         473 

of  using  the   truss;   the   quilled  suture    is   the  best,  and 
the    ligatures  must  be  stout,    so    as  not  to   readily    tear 


Fia.  110. — The  loop  of  Delwart's  Truss.     (From  Fleming's  '  Veterinary  Ob- 
stetrics.') 

away ;  a  good  hold  also  must  be  taken.  All  measures  failing 
to  effect  the  return  of  the  protruding  organ,  it  may  be 
amputated.  This  operation,  Amjputation  of  the  Uterus, 
has  often  been  successfully  performed  The  neck  being 
constricted  by  an  ordinary  ligature,  the  greater  part  of 
the  organ  may  be  removed  with  the  knife  or  with  the 
heated  iron,  or  the  method  of  caustic  clamp  or  elastic 
ligature  may  be  tried,  and  the  use  of  the  ecraseur  has 
been  suggested  for  this  purpose.  The  patient  will  require 
to  be  cast  in  the  usual  way  and  the  operation  be  performed 
under  chloroform. 

Prognosis  in  cases  of  prolapsus  uteri  must  be  considered 
favorable.  In  many  cases  the  recovery  is  so  perfect  as  to 
make  the  animal  useful  for  breeding  purposes  afterwards, 
but  such  animals  should  always  be  carefully  watched  during 
parturition  and  the  truss  applied  directly  the  foetus  has 
passed.  Death  may  take  place  through  shock  on  ampu- 
tation, or  from  mortification  of  the  protruded  organ. 
An  animal  which  has  once  been  thus  affected,  can  be 
returned  to  the  vendor,  according  to  the  law  of  some 
countries. 

Inversion  op  the  Yagina  is  a  frequent  accompaniment 
of  prolapsus  uteri,  and  cannot  be  said  to  render  the  case 
more  complicated.  Sometimes  it  is  seen  as  a  distinct 
lesion  ;  then  there  is  a  red  tumour  hanging  from  the  vulval 
opening  which  presents  no  cotyledons,  has  an  opening  at 
its  fundus,  and  at  its  lower  part  may  be  seen  the  orifice 
of  the  urethra.  It  is  not  difficult  to  return  this  after 
cleansing,  but  the  accident  is  very  liable  to  recur,  there- 


474  BOVINE   PATHOLOGY. 

fore  the  truss  or  sutures  tlirougli  the  labia  must  be  used. 
This  lesion  is  sometimes  chronic ;  the  lining  membrane  of 
the  organ  becomes  indurated.  In  such  cases,  since  return- 
ing is  only  effectual  for  a  short  time,  amputation  has  been 
tried  with  success,  the  operation  being  performed  with 
the  hot  iron  or  with  the  knife,  the  edges  of  the  wounds 
being  united  by  sutures  ;  this  measure  is  seldom 
necessary.  The  prolapsus  results  from  prolonged  reten- 
tion of  the  foetus  in  the  vulvo-vaginal  canal  and  dryness 
of  the  passages.  It  is  apt  to  give  rise  to  dysuria  from 
pressure  on  the  urethral  orifice. 

Inveesion  of  the  Bladder  has  been  already  mentioned 
(see  p.  343).  We  allude  to  it  here  to  prevent  the  everted 
organ  being  mistaken  for  a  polypus.  Its  position  is  diag- 
nostic, as  also  its  form. 

Hernia  uteri  or  Hysterocele  is  rare  in  the  cow  on 
account  of  the  large  size  of  the  organ.  We  have  already 
alluded  {p.  281)  to  the  cases  in  which  it  is  seen  in  front 
of  the  pubis.      Such  seldom  interfere  with  parturition. 

Tumours  in  the  Uterus. — Fibromata  either  highly  vas- 
cular or  lowly  organised,  hence  either  soft  or  hard,  and 
generally  pedunculated,  have  been  found  in  the  uterus  of 
the  cow,  attached  to  almost  every  part  of  it  in  the  various 
cases.  When  near  the  os,  these  may  prevent  parturition 
by  becoming  fixed  in  the  cervix,  and  the  same  may  be 
said  of  those  from  any  part  of  the  cavity,  provided  the 
peduncle  be  sufficiently  long.  In  such  cases  the  tumour 
must  be  returned  into  the  uterine  cavity  so  that  extraction 
of  the  foetus  may  be  possible.  Afterwards  an  attempt 
must  be  made  to  remove  the  growth  by  means  of  the 
ecraseur  or  ligature,  the  latter  being  most  generally  avail- 
able. We  have  no  record  of  malignant  tumours  in  the 
uterus,  but  in  some  cases  the  external  os  uteri  is  affected 
by  disease  apparently  of  the  nature  of  true  cancer. 

Malformations  of  the  Uterus  are  seen  in.  hermaphro- 
dite heifers,  which  are  generally  sterile. 

Kupture  of  the  Yagina  or  Yulva  is  somewhat  frequent 
in  parturition.  It  also  is  sometimes  due  to  introduction 
of   sticks    and    other    rough    instruments   by    boys    and 


THE  FEMALE  GENERATIVE  OEGANS.  475 

labourers,  who  seem  to  consider  this  an  excellent  joke. 
Some  hasmorrhage  will  take  place  through  the  external 
opening,  and  later,  a  discharge  of  a  muco-purulent  cha- 
racter will  appear.  Manual  exploration  of  the  parts  will 
disclose  the  lesion.  Cases  of  this  kind  do  not  seem  to 
be  attributable  to  the  penis  of  the  bull.  During  birth 
a  foot  of  the  foetus  may  be  forced  into  the  rectum  and 
protrude  through  the  anus,  or  pass  into  the  areolar  tissue 
around  the  vulva.  The  throes  being  powerful,  more  or 
less  laceration  occurs,  and  thus  in  some  cases  the  peri- 
nseum  may  be  entirely  lacerated  and  the  anus  and  vulval 
opening  become  continuous  with  one  another.  This  lesion 
is  seldom  seen  in  the  cow.  When  the  foot  protrudes 
through  the  anus  it  must  be  returned  as  soon  as  possible, 
and  the  calf  removed  through  its  normal  passage.  There 
is  after  this  great  liability  to  Eecto-vaginal  Fistula, 
which  must  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible  by  keeping 
the  contents  of  the  rectum  soft,  whereby  they  can  pass 
easily,  and  by  adopting  dressings  calculated  to  promote 
speedy  healing  of  the  orifice. 

Yesico-Yaginal  Fistula  is  not  frequent.  It  causes  in- 
continence of  urine,  and  the  fistula  can  hardly  be  got  to 
heal  because  of  the  constant  passage  of  the  urine.  A 
rupture  of  the  vagina  may  be  far  enough  forwards  to 
admit  of  protrusion  of  the  intestines  and  to  be  compli- 
cated with  peritonitis.  Injuries,  and  especially  bruises 
during  parturition,  are  rather  liable  to  cause  blood 
tumours,  Hamatomataj  in  the  erectile  tissue  of  the  bulb 
of  the  vagina. 

Leucorrhcea  —  '^  The  WJiites/'  —  Yaginitis  sometimes 
results  from  injury,  but  generally  subsides  rapidly,  and  is 
represented  by  a  chronic  form  of  inflammation  of  the 
lining  membrane  of-  the  vulva  and  vagina,  which  in  some 
cases  is  ulcerated,  in  others  simply  thickened,  and  some- 
times is  the  seat  of  scrofulous  deposit.  It  may  be  more 
or  less  extremely  diseased.  The  discharge  varies  in 
amount  and  in  consistence  also  in  constancy  of  flow.  It 
may  be  quite  white  and  profuse,  or  purulent  or  sangui- 
neous.    Also  the  constitution  is   variably  aflected;  there 


476 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


may  be  considerable  fever  or  scarcely  any.  Generally  the 
patient  exhibits  constant  sexual  desire,  but  seldom  becomes 
pregnant,  and  if  it  does  is  liable  to  abort.  There 
usually  the  general  signs  of  unthriftiness. 

Causes. —  Gonorrhoea  of  the  bull,  debility,  and  the  scro- 
fulous diathesis  are  the  principal. 

Treatment. — Tonics,  nutritious  diet,  avoidance  of  sexual 
intercourse,  and  stimulant  astringent  applications  after 
thorough  cleansing.  In  cases  of  ulceration,  the  applica- 
tion of  nitrate  of  silver.  These  cases  sometimes  prove 
very  obstinate.  A  crupous  form  of  vagnitis  has  been 
described. 


Addendum  1. — The  Lactifeeous  Appaeatus. 


The  mammary  gland  of  the  cow  is  largely  developed, 
having  been  much  increased  in  size  by  artificial  selection. 
It  consists  of  four  distinct  quarters,  each  with  a  teat, 
and  sometimes   two  rudimentary  teats,  imperforated,   are 


Fig.  111. — Some  of  the  smallest  lobules  of  the  lacteal  gland  of  a  puerperal 
woman,      x  70.     (After  Langer.) 

situated  behind  those  which  are  more  fully  developed. 
The  most  frequent  malformation  is  the  Absence  oe  Impee- 
POEATED  STATE  OP  THE  Teats,  and   in  animals  thus  formed, 


THU  FEMALE  GENEEATIVE  OEGANS.  477 

after  impregnation  the  gland  enlarges,  and  in  proper 
time  produces  milk,  but  this  cannot  gain  exit ;  it  remains 
in  the  milk  channels,  and  gives  rise  to  mammitis.  Some- 
times an  incision  at  the  extremity  of  the  teat  will  open 
the  partially  developed  duct,  when  the  milk  must  be  drawn 
off  regularly  with  a  syphon.  Usually  an  abscess  forms, 
and  the  curdled  and  decomposed  milk  is  thrown  off  in  the 
pus.  Such  animals  should  not  be  bred  from,  as  there  is 
some  risk,  and  this,  like  other  vices  of  conformation,  may 
be  transmitted  to  the  progeny. 

Mammitis — "  Garget  " — ''  Downfall  of  the  Udder  *^ — 
inflammation  of  the  mammary  gland — is  frequent  in  the 
cow,  as  might  have  been  expected  from  the  facts  that  this 
animal  is  used  as  a  milk-producing  machine,  and  has  its 
lactiferous  apparatus  very  largely  developed.  This  dis- 
ease is  of  the  highest  importance  as  affecting  the  yield  of 
milk  rather  than  the  life  of  the  animal.  It  may  be  par- 
tial or  complete,  for  the  quarters  of  the  gland  are  sepa- 
rated from  each  other  by  dense  fibrous  septa,  so  thatj 
practically,  there  are  four  glands,  and  inflammation  may 
rage  in  one  or  more  quarters  without  the  rest  being 
affected.  It  may  be  acute  or  chronic,  and  most  frequently 
is  seen  in  young  cattle,  especially  primiparae  (those  with 
the  first  calf),  kept  in  a  plethoric  state.  Sometimes  it 
commences  directly  after  calving,  but  in  other  cases  only 
comes  on  some  time  after.  Exposure  to  cold  when 
heated,  injuries  of  various  kinds,  obstructions  to  the  flow 
of  milk,  eczema  epizootica,  and  other  specific  disorders, 
may  be  enumerated  as  causes ;  in  some  cases  it  seems 
traceable  to  metastasis  from  the  lungs,  since  its  appear- 
ance is  associated  with  sudden  disappearance  of  pneumo- 
nitis. It  has  been  observed  to  be  most  frequent  in  hot 
summers.  Among  the  most  frequent  causes  must  be  in- 
cluded imperfect  removal  of  the  milk  (''  Hefting ''),  and 
allowing  the  animal  to  remain  too  long  without  milking, 
to  ensure  a  full  and  tempting  bag  at  the  time  of  sale. 

Symptoms. — Fever  runs  high  and  the  affected  gland 
is  swollen,  hot,  painful,  and  hard  to  the  touch.  The 
skin  investing  it  is  reddened,  and  there  is  generally  lame- 


478  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY.  4? 

ness  of  one  hind  limb.  The  milk  is  markedly  decreased 
and  is  curdled,  and  often  intermingled  with  blood,  or 
simply  a  thin  serous  fluid  is  removed  when  efforts  are 
made  to  milk  the  animal.  The  inflammatory  action  may 
originate  in  the  substance  of  the  gland,  or  extend  from 
the  openings  of  the  teats  into  the  ducts.  As  the  disease 
progresses  resolution  may  be  gradually  brought  about 
with  subsidence  of  acute  symptoms.  Sujp'puration  is  of 
frequent  occurrence,  and  is  denoted  by  softness  of  some 
part  of  the  gland,  which  pits  on  pressure.  The  abscesses 
sometimes  involve  a  very  considerable  part  of  the  giand 
substance,  forming  sinuses  and  fistulas  extending  from 
the  milk  sinuses  to  the  surface.  In  more  acute  cases 
gangrene  takes  place,  and  the  mortified  portions  of  gland 
become  cold,  pasty  to  the  feel,  and  are  removed  by  slough- 
ing ;  at  the  same  time  the  constitutional  symptoms  have 
a  markedly  asthenic  character.  When  the  inflammation  is 
less  acute  induration  is  apt  to  occur,  constituting  the  so- 
called  '^  scirrhous "  condition  of  one  or  more  quarters  of 
the  udder.  In  either  of  these  cases,  suppuration,  gangrene, 
or  induration,  the  quarter  is  lost. 

In  the  purchase  of  a  cow  the  state  of  the  udder,  the 
perfection  of  all  its  quarters,  must  be  specially  looked  to. 
We  have  already  alluded  (p.  174)  to  a  form  of  septic  mam- 
mitis,  which  has  been  described,  and  admitted  that  it  is  just 
possible  that  there  is  a  diphtheritic  form  of  the  disorder, 
in  which  the  milk  may  prove  the  vehicle  of  contagion,  but 
we  have  no  positive  evidence  on  this  point. 

Treatment  of  this  disorder  comprises  constitutional  and 
local  antiphlogistic  means.  A  cathartic  dose  should  be 
administered,  and  the  animal  allowed  nitre  in  the  drink- 
ing water.  Aconite  will  counteract  the  systemic  excite- 
ment, and  in  some  cases  it  is  thought  advisable  to  bleed. 
This  measure  will  prove  beneficial  when  the  inflammation 
runs  very  high,  threatening  gangrene,  otherwise  it  may 
be  omitted.  The  superficial  abdominal  or  milk  vein  used 
to  be  preferred  for  this  operation;  it  is  remarkably 
developed  in  the  cow,  and  takes  a  course  from  behind  for- 
wards to  the  internal  thoracic  veins.    This  local  abstraction 


THE  FEMALE  GENEEATIVE  ORGANS.  479 

can  have  no  more  beneficial  effect  than  general  bleeding. 
The  vessels  the  milk  vein  receives  from  the  udder  are 
very  small^  for   the  greater  part  of  the  blood  from  this 


Fig.  112. — Means  of  supportii^ 
the  udder  in  mammitis.  ('Arma- 
tage.) 


Fig.  113.— Injection  of  fluids 
into  the  mammary  gland, 
(Armatage.) 

gland  passes  into  the  femoral  veins  indirectly  through  the 
subpubic.  Local  treatment  comprises  removal  of  all  the 
milk  at  regular  intervals,  either  by  milking,  by  use  of  the 
teat  syphon,  or  by  allowing  the  calf  free  access.  Some- 
times the  cow  will  not  allow  the  calf  to  suck  at  the  dis- 
eased quarters.  Next  foment  freely,  and  afterwards 
apply  a  poultice  containing  belladonna  to  the  whole  gland, 
supporting  it  and  the  weight  of  the  organ  by  a  wide 
bandage  passed  over  the  loins.  As  soon  as  suppuration 
has  taken  place,  and  the  abscess  is  perceptible,  it  must  be 
opened  with  a  lancet,  or  an  irregular  wound  will  result 
from  its  bursting,  and  the  pus  will  burrow  extensively 
and  cause  disorganisation.  By  early  puncture  a  part  of 
the  quarter  may  be  preserved.  Subsequently  the  abscess 
cavity  should  be  dressed  with  tincture  of  myrrh  or  carbolic 
ointment.  In  cases  of  gangrene  the  strength  of  the  patient 
must  be  supported  by  means  of  stimulant  tonics,  and  the 
mortified  parts  excised,  or  if  they  have  sloughed  away,  the 
wounds  must  be  dressed  with  solution  of  chloride  of  lime 
or   of  carbolic   acid.     In  those  cases  where  the  disease 


480  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

assumes  a  chronic  character,  and  there  is  a  tendency  to 
induration,  we  must  endeavour  to  break  down  the  masses 
of  curdled  milk  in  the  gland  by  alkaline  injections 
through  the  teats,  and  constant  attention  to  milking;  and 
we  must  endeavour  to  promote  the  removal  of  exuded 
fibrinous  matter  in  early  cases  by  stimulating  applications, 
as  soon  as  all  active  inflammation  has  subsided ;  later, 
by  iodine  ointments  and  iodide  of  potassium  administered 
internally.  Throughout  cases  of  mammitis  the  use  of 
food  materials  containing  large  quantities  of  milk-forming 
elements  should  be  avoided.  In  the  early  stages  the  calf 
may  be  allowed  the  milk,  but  when  this  becomes  mingled 
with  inflammatory  products,  and  especially  when  gangrene 
sets  in,  this  fluid  must  be  thrown  away.  During  oestrum 
and  the  first  production  of  milk  a  congested  condition  of 
the  mammary  gland  has  been  observed.  This  is  the 
early  stage  of  true  mammitis,  but  the  supervention  of 
inflammation  may  often  be  prevented  by  the  timely  with- 
drawal of  milk  and  fomentation.  Mammitis  is  very  seldom 
seen  in  *"'  dried  cows  ^'  (''  drapes  ''). 

Sore  Teats  —  Erythema  Mammillarum  —  has  been 
already  mentioned   (see  '^Diseases  of  the  Skin,^^  p.  349). 

Tumours  on  the  Teats. — Warty  growths  are  sometimes 
seen  on  the  teats;  they  interfere  with  milking,  and  are 
liable  to  injury,  but  can  be  easily  removed  with  the 
knife,  or  by  means  of  ligatures. 

Obstructions  in  the  Teats  are  not  rare;  in  milking 
the  animal  they  can  be  felt  as  nodules  along  the  course 
of  the  duct,  and  the  flow  will  be  more  or  less  impeded. 
These  are  either  masses  of  curdled  milk,  small  tumours 
attached  by  pedicles  to  the  mucous  membrane,  or  Lac- 
teal Calculi.  These  impediments  to  free  flow  tend  to 
produce  mammitis,  and  must,  therefore,  be  removed.  This 
is  not  always  an  easy  matter,  but,  when  not  extracted,  they 
may  be  returnable  to  the  galactophorous  sinuses,  where  they 
will  often  remain  without  causing  inconvenience. 

Inflammation  op  the  Lining  Memrrane  op  the  Duct, 
occurring  as  a  complication  of  mammitis,  sometimes  results 
in  stricture   of  the   passage.     This  may  be  relieved  by 


THE  FEMALE  GENERATIVE  ORGANS.  481 

frequent  passage    of    probes    or     syphons   of     gradually 
increasing  size. 

Relaxation  is  seen  as  a  result  of  the  practice  of  allowing 
over-accumulation  of  milk.  It  gives  rise  to  Lactorrh(ea. 
The  mechanism  by  which  the  milk  is  retained  in  the  galac- 
tophores  is  variously  described  as  an  elastic  ring  or  a 
sphincter  of  muscular  fibre.  The  fact  that  the  cow  can 
retain  the  milk  if  an  attempt  be  made  to  remove  it  by  a 
stranger  seems  to  support  the  latter  opinion.  When  this 
muscular  substance  is  disordered  a  free  flow  takes  place.  To 
palliate  this  the  sphincter  has  been  artificially  replaced  by 
an  elastic  band  which  compresses  the  teat  enough  to  close 
its  passage  but  not  to  strangulate  it.  This  is  removed 
at  milking  time,  and  seems  to  answer  in  many  cases. 
Lactorrhoea  sometimes  results  from  inattention  and  want 
of  milking  after  removal  of  a  calf  ('  Edinburgh  Veterinary 
Review/  vol.  iii^  p.  190). 


Addendum  2. — Milk  and  its  Disorders. 

The  milk  of  the  cow  has  a  specific  gravity,  averaging 
1030,  and  contains  less  fatty  matter,  albumen,  and  sugar 
than  that  of  the  human  female,  but  considerably  more 
casein  and  salines.  It  varies  very  much  in  quality  and 
quantity  with  the  nature  of  the  diet.  Is  tested  by  means 
of  a  special  form  of  the  hydrometer,  termed  the  lacto- 
meter, and  also  by  microscopical  examination.  We  need 
not  enter  into  details  of  this,  but  simply  remark  that 
though  under  healthy  conditions  the  variations  in  quality 
and  quantity  of  this  fluid  are  rather  extensive,  they  are 
more  so  as  a  result  of  disease. 

Agalactia  is  the  non-production  of  milk  in  consequence 
either  of  atrophy  of  the  mammary  gland,  which  results 
from  inflammation,  or  of  debility  of  the  system  in  general. 
In  the  former  case  it  is  incurable,  in  the  latter,  by 
judicious  feeding  with  highly  nutritious  diet,  the  flow  of 
milk  may  be  restored.  The  value  of  galactagogues  is  not 
quite    a   matter   of  certainty.     It   is  said    by  some  that 

31 


482 


BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 


agalactia  takes  place  in  two  or  three  years   after  spaying 
has  been  performed,  but  others  assert  that  this  is  only  a 


Fig.  115. — A.  Lobule  of  mamma  filled  with 
milk.  B.  Milk  globules.  C.  Colostrum. 
a.  Cell  with  visible  nucleus,  b.  Cells  from 
which  the  nucleus  has  disappeared.  (From 
Colin,  'Physiologie  des  animaux  domes- 
tiques.*) 


Fig.  114. — Section  of  the 
cow's  teat,  a  a.  Principal 
lactiferous  ducts,  b.  Lac- 
tiferous sinus,  c  c.  Acini. 
d  d.  Dartoid  tissue  of  the 
teat.  e.  Orifice  of  the 
teat.  (From  Colin,  "Physi- 
ologic des  animaux  do- 
mestiques.*') 

very  exceptional  condition,  the  secretion  of  milk  being 
constant  and  lasting  for  a  long  time.  Aged  cows  dry  up,  and 
a  loss  of  milk  is  the  first  symptom  in  many  important 
diseases. 

Hypergaladia,  or  prolonged  lactation,  is  not  so  frequent 
and  is  often  seen  in  very  good  milkers.  It  is  hardly  a 
diseased  state,  but  it  constitutes  a  great  strain  on  the 
system. 

Changes  in  the  quality  op  the  Milk  are — (1)  due  to 
excess  or  deficiency  of  natural  components.  Thus,  some 
milk  gives  scarcely  any  cream,  while  in  other  cases  the 
secretion  is  scanty,  but  very  rich.  Bluish  watery  milk  is 
given  sometimes  in  normal  quantity  by  debilitated  animals. 
These  and  other  similar  conditions  are  dependent  on  feed- 
ing, and  other  points  of  management.  The  nature  of  the 
food  very  frequently  affects  the  flavour  of  the  butter. 
Sometimes  it  is  found  that  the  milk  gives  little 
butter,  and  at  other  times  is  not  valuable  for  cheese. 
(2)  Admixture  of  foreign  matters,  as  blood,  pus,  specific 
discharges,  bacteria,   &c.     These   result  from  specific  or 


THE  FEMALE  GENERATIVE  ORGANS.  483 

ordinary  inflammation;  in  the  former  case  the  milk  may- 
prove  the  vehicle  of  contagion  to  man  and  other  animals. 
In  foot-and-mouth  disease^  and  other  specific  disorders, 
the  calf  if  left  with  the  dam  may  become  affected  with 
a  virulent  form  of  the  disease.  Medicinal  agents  adminis- 
tered to  the  cow  pass  off  in  the  milk  and  may  seriously 
affect  the  calf  or  children  fed  on  this  fluid.  It  has  been 
proposed  to  thus  prepare  medicines  in  a  palatable  and 
bland  form  for  human  use  at  the  expense  of  the  cow,  but 
this  method  has  not  been  generally  adopted. 


Fia.  116.— Milk  or  Teat  Syphon. 


Addendum  3. — Diseases  op  very  Young  Animals. 

The  young  animal  on  birth  is  sometimes  found  asphyxi-' 
ated.  No  respiratory  efforts  are  made ;  the  '^  necessity 
for  breathing ''  does  not  produce  the  usual  effect.  Artificial 
respiration  may  be  tried  or  douching  with  cold  water. 

Umbilical  Hcemorrhage  may  result  from  breaking  off  of 
the  cord  too  close  to  the  abdomen.  The  usual  styptic 
measures  may  be  tried,  and  if  possible,  a  ligature  put  on. 

Perviousness  of  the  UracTius,  Gastro-enteritisj  and  Hernice 
of  young  animals  have  been  already  described.  Also  we 
have  alluded  to  the  accumulations  of  meconium,  which  give 
rise  to  constipation  and  general  abdominal  disorder,  and 
result  either  from  excessive  accumulation,  or  from  the 
young  animal  being  deprived  of  the  colostrum,  its  natural 
cathartic. 

Inflammation  op  the  Umbilical  Cord — Omphalitis — is 
especially  seen  in  the  progeny  of  scrofulous  animals,  and 
may  result  from  any  ordinary  irritating  influence ;  the  ten- 
dency calves  have  to  suck  the  remains  of  the  umbilical  cord 
especially  gives  rise  to  this.  The  scrofulous  cases  are  very 
obstinate,  but  ordinary  ones  soon  suppurate,  and  there  is  a 


484  BOVINE    PATHOLOGY. 

tendency  of  tlie  pus  to  pass  up  the  cord  and  cause  sinuses. 
These  must  be  opened^  the  young  animal  removed  from 
among  other  calves,  and  the  inflamed  part  fomented 
and  protected  from  injury,  after  opening  it  must  be 
dressed  with  the  glycerine  or  oil  of  carbolic  acid.  No 
special  measure  is  necessary  in  the  treatment,  but  a  long 
and  severe  case  of  this  disorder  may  considerably  retard 
the  development  of  the  calf.  It  also  may  give  rise  to  a 
disorder  which  has  been  described  by  M.  Lenglen,  of 
Arras,  in  a  paper  which  has  been  translated  for  the 
'  Veterinarian,^  December,  1880.  It  is  termed  Gangeenous 
Stomatitis,  being  similar  to  a  disease  of  the  same  name 
which  affects  children  who  are  badly  nourished.  The 
buccal  membrane  sloughs  in  patches  of  considerable  size 
against  the  molar  tooth,  and  there  is  a  tendency  to  the 
formation  of  an  abscess  in  the  cheek  or  lips.  Foetid 
diarrhoea  is  present,  and  often  carries  off  the  patient. 
Though  most  frequently  seen  in  very  young  animals  this 
disease  may  be  found  in  calves  several  months  old,  and 
should  be  treated  by  nourishing  diet,  vegetable  tonics, 
and,  according  to  M.  Lenglen,  coffee.  The  lesions  should 
be  touched  with  caustic  after  the  sloughing  patches  have 
been  removed.  All  the  hygenic  conditions  should  be 
carefully  regulated. 

(Edema  op  the  Umbilicus  also  results  from  calves  suck- 
ing one  another.  It  must  not  be  mistaken  for  umbilical 
hernia.     A  bandage  may  be  put  on  to  protect  the  part. 


Fig.  117.  -rarturltion  forcepj 


NOTES    ON    THE    BIBLIOGRAPHY    OF    CATTLE 
PATHOLOGY  IN  THE   ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 


PoR  a  long  time  after  some  scientific  knowledge  liad  been  brought 
to  bear  on  the  subject  of  the  diseases  of  the  horse,  the  treatment  of 
other  domesticated  animals  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  most 
ignorant  of  empirics,  who,  under  the  name  of  "  Cow  leeches,"  were 
called  in  to  attend  such  cases  as  proved  beyond  the  experience  of 
the  owner.  The  vilest  and  moat  complicated  of  nostrums  were 
administered  by  these  worthies,  and  it  seems  that  it  was  generally 
considered  to  be  safer  for  the  farmer  to  trust  to  his  simple  know- 
ledge of  disease  and  the  prescriptions  handed  down  to  him  by 
his  ancestors,  than  to  expend  money  on  medicinal  treatment  with 
little  prospect  of  receiving  its  value,  and  considerable  likelihood  of 
detriment  to  his  stock.  Hence,  we  find  that  accounts  of  the  diseases 
of  the  ox  are,  with  those  of  other  animals,  treated  of  in  works  on 
Husbandry,  such  as  Markham's  Way  to  Wealth  and  Country  Farmer, 
and  we  need  scarcely  say  that  the  language  used  and  the  notions 
expressed  in  these  works  were  markedly  diflferent  from  those 
sanctioned  by  science.  Before  1825,  some  books  were  produced 
specially  touching  upon  the  management  and  diseases  of  cattle,  of 
these  we  may  mention : 

Mascall  on  "  Cattle  "  (1680). 

Mills  on  "Cattle"  (1776). 

Downing  on  "  Cattle  "  (1797). 

Feron's  "  Farriery"  (1803). 

RowHn's  "  Cow  Doctor  "  (1804). 

Boothby  on  "  Cattle  "  (1809). 

Causer  on  "  Domestic  Animals  "  (1822). 
Also  the  works  of  Lawrence,  Tindall,  Ry dings.  Peck,  and  Rydge, 
and  those  of  Clater  and  White,  which,  under  much  modified  forms, 
have  remained  to  the  present  day ;  the  latest  edition  of  Clater's 
Cattle  Doctor  by  Armatage  being  one  of  no  little  value,  to  which  we 
are  indebted  for  many  useful  hints  and  illustrations.  White  was 
an  author  of  much  repute  and  merit,  and  his  Veterinary  Dictionary 
and  Cattle  Medicine  are  still  worth  examination,  especially  the  1842 
edition  of  the  latter,  which  was  brought  out  by  Mr.  W.  C.  Spooner, 
an  eminent  veterinary  surgeon  and  accomplished  writer.  Topham 
produced  a  book  specially  on  the  Diseases  of  Cattle,  and  this  period 
of  the  evolution  of  the  literature  of  cattle  pathology  led  to  such 
monographs  on  special  subjects,  as  Parkinson  on  Parturient 
Animals,  Skellet  on  the  Breeding  Cow,  and  Blurton  on  Milking. 

In  1798  was  published  Jenner's  remarkable  work  on  Variola 
Vaccina. 
During  the  rise  of  veterinary  science  appeared  books  useful  both 


486  NOTES  ON  BIBLIOGEAPHY  OP  CATTLE  PATHOLOGT. 

for  the  owners  of  cattle  and  to  the  members  of  the  young  profession ; 
of  these  the  one  which  most  largely  has  influenced  the  progress  of 
cattle  pathology  is  that  excellent  work,  Youatt  On  Cattle,  which 
appeared  in  1834,  and  may  still  be  consulted  with  benefit  in  spite  of 
the  vast  strides  of  all  branches  of  pathology  since  then.  More 
recently  members  of  the  veterinary  profession  have  contributed 
largely  to  the  advancement  of  this  branch  of  science,  and  our 
leading  authors  have  treated  of  the  diseases  of  cattle  generally  with 
those  of  our  other  patients,  as  in  the  works  of  Blaine,  Dick, 
Gamgee,  and  Williams,  the  Veterinary  Surgery  and  Veterinary 
Medicine  of  the  last  of  these  authors,  and  the  work  of  Gamgee  on 
Our  Domestic  Animals  in  Health  and  Disease,  are  those  which  we 
suggest  as  most  valuable  to  the  student  of  cattle  pathology  in  the 
present  day.  For  information  on  special  subjects  he  cannot  do 
better  than  consult  such  works  as  those  of  Fleming  on  Animal 
Plagues,  Babies  and  Hydrophobia,  Veterinary  Sanitary  Science  and 
Police,  and  (especially)  Veterinary  Obstetrics,  the  publication  of 
which  has  rendered  it  less  necessary  for  us  to  enter  into  prolonged 
treatment  of  this  section  of  bovine  practice  than  has  seemed  right 
to  our  predecessors  in  this  branch  of  professional  literature.  Also 
Wallet's  Four  Bovine  Scourges  is  of  special  value  and  interest ;  it 
is  a  marked  gain  to  veterinary  science.  We  must  here  also  allude 
to  the  small  but  useful  papers  by  Morton  and  Simonds,  the  former 
on  Calculous  Concretions  and  Toxicology,  the  latter  on  Pleuro- 
pneumonia, Parturient  Apoplexy,  and  so  on.  Also  to  that  formidable 
but  interesting  volume,  Gamgee  oh  Cattle  Plague.  For  our  informa- 
tion on  the  action  of  medicinal  agents  we  are  indebted  to  the  works 
of  Morton,  Tuson,  and  Finlay  Dun  ;  and  we  have  derived  much 
valuable  matter  from  Dr.  Gobbold's  Parasites,  and  The  Parasites 
of  our  Domesticated  Animals,  as  well  as  from  notes  on  his  course 
of  lectures  at  the  Royal  Veterinary  College,  which  we,  as  a  stu- 
dent, had  the  privilege  of  taking.  A  few  works  on  cattle  have  been 
recently  produced  in  America,  of  these  we  need  only  allude  to  Pro- 
fessor James  Law's  Farmer's  Veterinary  Adviser,  as  in  many  points 
original  and  always  worth  reading.  Dobson  On  the  Ox,  through 
which  we  have  been  fortunate  enough  to  obtain  many  of  our  illus- 
trations, is  addressed  to  the  farmer  as  well  as  the  practitioner,  and 
is  therefore  hardly  sufficient  fo::  the  requirements  of  the  profession 
in  the  present  day.  It  has  proved  of  considerable  use  to  students 
and  practitioners,  and  we  can  conscientiously  allude  to  it  as  a 
simple,  interesting,  and  practical  work.  With  those  of  Youatt, 
Armatage,  and  Spooner,  already  alluded  to,  it  has  recently  repre- 
sented that  portion  of  veterinary  literature  most  directly  dealing 
with  diseases  of  the  ox.  Not  the  least  valuable  portion  of  the 
literature  of  my  subject  must  be  sought  for  in  the  columns  of  such 
periodical  publications  as  the  Veterinarian,  Veterinary  Journal, 
Edinburgh  and  American  Veterinary  Beviews,  Veterinary  Becord, 
Abstract  of  Proceedings  of  the  Veterinary  Medical  Association,  and 
also  the  journals  of  the  various  agricultural  societies. 


INDEX, 


PAGE 

PAGE 

Abductor  f  emorls,  dislocation 

of    407 

Aneurism 

220 

Abnormal  presentations 

.     448 

"  Angle  berries'* 

354 

Abomasitis 

264,  267 

Anidians .        ^.         .         . 

456 

Abomasum 

.     250 

Animal  parasites  of  skin 

357 

—  impaction  of 

.     267 

—  vaccination 

157 

—  rupture  of  . 

.     268 

Anorexia 

67 

Abscess    . 

.      27 

Ante-partum  bleeding 

441 

—  of  kidney     . 

.     338 

Anthracoid  affections 

161 

—  serous . 

.    424 

Anthrax  . 

161 

Absence  of  teats 

.    476 

Antidotes 

189 

Acariasis  . 

.    357 

Antiphlogi  sties 

49 

Accumulations  of  meconium 

.     483 

Antiseptic  surgery 

417 

Acne 

.    352 

—  system 

417 

Aconite    . 

.     193 

Anus,  false 

.     280 

,  293 

Active  congestion     . 

.      35 

—  impervious  . 

294 

—  haemorrhage 

.       37 

Aphtha    . 

236 

Acute  disease    . 

.      40 

—  epizootica    . 

141 

—  inflammation 

.       35 

—  genitalium  . 

160 

Administration  of  chloroform 

.       72 

—  infectious    . 

160 

—  of  drenches . 

.      74 

Apnoea     . 

19 

—  of  medicines 

.      73 

Apoplexy 

379 

Adrenals  . 

.     226 

—  intestinal     . 

293 

Adynamia  nervosa    . 

.     389 

—  parturient    . 

390 

-^gagropiles     . 

.    264 

—  puerperal     . 

390 

—  in  liquor  amnii    . 

.    461 

—  pulmonary  . 

322 

Afterbirth 

.     445 

—  splenic 

167 

Afterpains 

.    446 

Appendages  of  the  eye,  di 

seases 

Agalactia . 

.    481 

of     .        .        . 

369 

Age  in  relation  to  disease 

.      61 

Application  of  boiling  wai 

ier     . 

85 

Air  .        .        .        . 

.      59 

Aqueous  chamber,  deposit 

s  in  . 

373 

—  expired 

.      67 

Arsenic    . 

197 

Albugo     . 

.    372 

Arteries   . 

220 

Albuminuria     . 

.    336 

—  irregularities  of  . 

221 

Alimentary  canal 

.    227 

Arthritis  .         ,         .        . 

407 

Alopecia  . 

.     355 

—  rheumatic   . 

104 

Alvitis     . 

.    260 

—  scrofulous    . 

124 

Amaurosis 

.    374 

Ascites     . 

301 

Amenorrhcea    . 

.    440 

—  congenital  . 

456 

Amnion,  dropsy  of    . 

.     460 

Asphyxia 

9 

Amputation  of  a  foot 

.     366 

—  neonatorum 

483 

—  of  the  penis 

.    433 

Asthenia  .         .         .         . 

16 

—  of  the  uterus 

.    473 

Asthenic  inflammation 

34 

—  of  the  vagina 

.    474 

Asthma    . 

319 

Anaemia   . 

16,92 

Astringent  poisons   . 

196 

Anaesthetics      . 

.       44 

Atheroma 

220 

Anasarca          . 

.    855 

Atmosphere 

59 

488 


INDEX. 


PAas 

PAGE 

Atrophy  . 

22 

"  Bnllers" 

.    465 

—  of  the  blood 

92 

"Bull-burnt"  . 

.    435 

—  of  the  heart 

210 

Bursal  enlargements 

.    424 

—  of  the  omasum     . 

267 

—  of  the  ovaries 

437 

Cachexia  aquosa  verminosa              93 

—  of  the  skin  . 

355 

—  ossifraga  malacia 

.    400 

—  of  the  spleen 

225 

Csesarean  operation 

.     444 

Auscultation    . 

.*     304, 306 

Calcareous  tumours 

.    424 

Calcification     . 

20,  25 

Bacillus   . 

161 

Calculus,  cystic 

.    344 

Bacterium  of  anthrax 

161 

—  gastric 

.    263 

Baldness  . 

355 

■—  intestinal     . 

.        .    274 

Balls  for  cattle 

74 

—  lacteal 

.    482 

Barbs 

232 

—  pancreatic   .         . 

.    300 

Bearers    . 

201 

—  preputial     , 

.    348 

"Bed-sores"    . 

391 

—  renal   . 

.    338 

Bending  of  a  bone    . 

404 

—  salivary 

.    232 

Bile 

299 

—  urethral 

.     347,434 

Birth,  premature 

443 

—  uretal  . 

.     339 

"  Black  cancer** 

421 

Callous  ulcer    . 

.    321 

"  Black  leg''     . 

170 

Callus       . 

.    402 

"Black  quarter'*       . 

170 

Campy lorrhachides  . 

.    457 

"  Black  water*' 

106 

Canal,  alimentary     . 

.     322 

Bladder,  inflammation  of 

342 

Cancer 

.     119, 419 

—  inversion  of         . 

343, 475 

—  black  .        .        .        , 

.    421 

—  rupture  of  . 

343 

—  of  kidney     . 

.    339 

—  spasm  of  the  neck 

343 

—  of  penis 

.    433 

—  tumour  of  . 

346 

— -  of  tongue     . 

.    234 

Blaine  or  blain 

169 

,351 

Capillary  haemorrhage 

.     222 

Blebs 

33 

Carbuncle 

.    352 

Bleeding  from  the  lungs  . 

323 

Carbuncular  erysipelas 

.     170 

—  from  the  nostrils 

311 

Carbonic- acid  poisoning    , 

.     180 

—  ante-partum 

446 

Carcinomata    . 

.    419 

Blistering 

85 

Cardiac  polypi 

.    217 

Blood       .         .         .         . 

89 

Carditis    .        .        .        , 

.    210 

—  in  urine 

335 

Caries      .... 

.      29 

Bloodletting     . 

86 

—  of  molars     . 

.     218 

—  local    .         .         .         . 

57 

Cartilago-nictitans    . 

.     371 

Bloody  flux 

288,447   1 

Caruncula  lachrymalis 

.    371 

—  sweat 

356 

Caseation 

.       19 

"Blown" 

254 

Castration 

.    428 

Bone,  fibro-plastic  degenei 

•ation 

—  of  cows 

.    438 

of         ...         . 

423 

Cataplasmata    . 

.      85 

—  inflammation  of  . 

396 

Cataract  .... 

.    374 

Bony  tumours  on  orbit      . 

370 

Catarrh    .... 

.     310 

Borborygma      . 

67 

—  malignant   . 

.     179 

"Bound" 

281 

Cathartics 

.    285 

Bowels,  diseases  of  . 

274 

Catheter,  passing  the 

.    340 

Brain,  dropsy  of 

380 

Cattle  plague   . 

.    147 

—  inflammation  of  . 

376 

Causes      .... 

2 

—  parasites  in 

382 

—  determining 

.    114 

Breeding,  "  in-and-in"     . 

58 

Cautery,  castration  by  the 

.    431 

—  special 

47 

Cavernous  rdle          .        , 

.    305 

Bronchitis 

315 

Cerebritis 

.    375 

—  chronic 

318 

Cerebro-spinal  system 

.    375 

—  parasitic 

319 

Charbon  .... 

.    167 

Broncho-pneumonia 

134 

—  essential 

.    167 

Bulimia  •         »        » 

241 

—  external 

.    170 

INDEX. 


489 


PAGE 

PAGE 

Charbon,  symptomatic      . 

. 

170 

Cramp  of  tongue 

.     235 

Charbonous  gangrene  of  lungs  . 

170 

Cranium,  fractures  of 

.     404 

«  Chine  felon  " 

, 

104 

Crepitation 

.     306 

Chlorofown 

44,  71 

"  Cripples  "      . 

.     400 

Choking 

240 

«  Crochles  "      . 

.     104 

Chorea     .... 

390 

Crupous  enteritis      . 

.     293 

Chronic  disease 

40 

—  pneumonia  . 

,     324 

—  inflammation 

51 

Cud,  dropping  the    . 

.     230 

Cicatrisation    .         ... 

414 

Cumulative  agents   . 

.     186 

Clamps,  castration  with    . 

431 

Cuticular  cyst  in  parotid 

.     232 

—  umbilical 

278 

"  Cutting  for  the  stone  " 

.     346 

Classification  of  poisons    . 

186 

Cyanosis  . 

.     219 

—  of  skin  diseases    . 

348 

Cystic  calculus 

.     344 

"Cleansing"    . 

445 

—  tumours 

.     424 

Cleft  palate      . 

457 

Cystitis    . 

.     342 

Climate    .... 

60 

Cystocele 

.     276 

"Clue  bound" 

264 

Cysts        . 

.     235 

"Clyers" 

124 

—  dermopilous 

.     354 

Coat  staring     . 

348 

Coelosomians     . 

457 

Dead  foetus       . 

.    465 

CoitA,  injuries  sub    . 

433 

Death      . 

.       15 

Colchicum 

194 

Debility   . 

.      92 

Cold  abscesses 

27 

Degeneration   . 

.       18 

—  efi'ects  of    . 

51 

—  cretaceous,  of  heart 

.    211 

Colic,  flatulent 

274 

—  fatty,  of  heart      . 

.    211 

—  simple 

273 

—  of  arteries    . 

.     220 

Collapse  .... 

45 

—  of  bone,  fibro-plastic 

.     423 

Colloid     .... 

420 

—  of  oesophagus 

.    235 

Colon       .... 

270 

Delirium  .         .       -. 

.     383 

Colour,  effects  on  skin  diseases 

356 

Delitescence     . 

.       34 

Coma       .... 

17 

Demarcation,  line  of 

33,48 

Concentric  hypertrophy    . 

210 

Depilation 

.     353 

Conception,  extra  uterine 

443 

Derivatives 

.       49 

Confluent  ulcer 

32 

Dermatitis 

.    349 

Conformation  . 

61 

—  pustulosa     . 

.     351 

Congenital  disease    . 

47 

Dermatophyta . 

.     356 

—  hairy  tumour 

373 

Dermatozoa     . 

.     356 

—  hydrocephalus     . 

456 

Dermopilous  cysts    . 

.    354 

Congestion 

35,  52  1 

Detection  of  foetus   . 

.    441 

—  hepatic 

297 

Determining  causes  . 

.    114 

—  pulmonary  . 

322 

"  Dew  blown  " 

.     254 

Conium    .... 

193 

Diabetes  insipidus    . 

111,  334 

Conjunctivitis  . 

371 

—  mellitus 

.     Ill 

Conservative  surgery 

46 

Diagnosis 

3 

Constipation     . 

284 

Diaphragm,  rupture  of 

.     332 

Contagion 

113 

Diaphragmatic  hernia 

.     280 

Continuity,  solutions  of    . 

37 

Diarrhoea 

.     286 

Contraction,   imperfect,  of 

08 

Diet          .         .         .         . 

.       38 

uteri 

464 

Difficult  parturition 

.    461 

Contused  wounds 

412 

Digestive  system 

.    227 

"  Copper  smoke  disease  " 

198 

Digitalis  .         .         .         . 

49,  194 

Cord,  spinal,  diseases  of    . 

384 

Dilatation  of  os  uterJ 

.    464 

—  umbilical,  inflammation  of 

483 

—  of  oesophagus 

.    258 

Cornea,  opacity  of     . 

372 

—  of  urethra  . 

.    339 

Corneitis 

371 

—  of  ureter     . 

.     345 

Coryza      .... 

179 

Diphtheria 

.     176 

Cough      .... 

10,  64  1 

Disease     .         .         .        . 

1 

Covered  operation  of  castration 

431   1 

Diseases,  specific 

.     Ill 

490 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

PAGE 

Disinfection 

, 

86 

Enteritis 

290 

—  for  pleuro-pneumonia 

152 

—  crupous        .... 

291 

Dislocations     . 

, 

409 

Enterocele        .        .        .        . 

276 

—  of  the  patella 

. 

410 

Enzootics          .        .        .         . 

40 

Displacement   of 

abduct 

or   fe- 

Epidermal  tumours  . 

423 

moris 

, 

407 

Epidermis,  keratoid  change  of 

353 

Diuresis   . 

341 

Epilepsy 

378 

Doses       .  .      . 

, 

77 

Epiphyses,  separation  of  . 

404 

"Downfall  of  the  udder" 

477 

Epiplocele         .         .         .         . 

276 

Draughts 

73 

Epistaxis           .... 

311 

Drenches . 

73 

Epithelial  tumours  . 

423 

Dressing  feet   . 

71 

Epithelioma     ,        .         .         . 

421 

Drink 

61 

Epizootics        .... 

40 

Dropsy     . 

'         25,  53 

—  vesicular      .... 

40 

—  of  abdomen 

301 

Erysipelas        .         .         .         . 

176 

—  of  amnion    . 

460 

—  carbuncular 

170 

—  of  brain 

379 

Erythema         .         .         .         . 

349 

—  of  joints 

408 

—  chronica       .         .         .         . 

349 

—  of  ovaries    . 

437 

—  mammillarum 

349 

—  of  pericardium 

217 

Essential  charbon     . 

167 

—  of  uterus 

465 

Etiology  ..... 

2 

Dysentery 

288 

Evil,  quarter    .... 

170 

Dysorexia 

67 

Examinations,  post-mortem 

38 

Dyspnoea . 

7 

Exanthemata   .... 

155 

Dysuria    . 

342 

Excipients        .... 
Exomphalos      .... 

85 
277 

Ear,  diseases  of 

369 

Exostosis          .         .         .     399 

,  424 

Eburnation 

105 

Extra  uterine  conception  . 

443 

Eccentric  hypertrophy  of 

heart 

210 

Extravasation  .... 

36 

Echinococcus    . 

182 

Exudation         .... 

26 

—  in  liver 

297 

Eye 

369 

Ecraseur 

427, 

431 

—  worm  in       ...         . 

373 

Ecthyma 

352 

Eyeball,  diseases  of 

371 

Ectopia  cordis 

219, 

457 

Eyelids,  laceration  of 

370 

Ectozoa    . 

356 

Eczema    . 

350 

"Falling  of  the  read"      . 

460 

—  contagiosa  . 

141 

False  anus         .... 

280 

—  epizootica    . 

141 

—  labour  pains 

441 

Effusion  . 

24 

—  presentation 

448 

Elastic  band  for  castratioi 

432 

Farcy 

175 

Elephantiasis    . 

. 

354 

Fatty    deposits    in    spermatic 

Eliminative  poisons  . 

197 

cord 

432 

Emasculation   . 

430 

—  tumours       .... 

423 

Embolism 

221 

Felon  chine      .... 

104 

Embryotomy    , 

458 

—  joint    .         .         .         .         . 

104 

Emphysema     . 

319, 

355 

Fetlock,  sprain  of    . 

405 

—  f cetal  . 

456 

Fever       

93 

—  infectuosum 

170 

—  inflammatory 

170 

—  spontaneous 

370 

—  parturient  .         .         .     173, 

396 

Emprosthotonos 

384 

—  Spanish       .... 

168 

Empyema 

27, 

328 

—  splenic         .... 

167 

Encephalitis     . 

375 

—-Texas 

168 

Encephaloid     . 

420 

Fibrinous  intestinal  casts 

292 

Enchondromata 

423 

Fibromata         .... 

425 

Endocarditis     . 

211 

—  interdigital 

368 

Endometritis    . 

466 

Fistula 

32 

Enemas    . 

75 

—  in  ano          .... 

294 

Enlargements,  bursal 

424 

—  of  rumen     .        ,        ,        . 

264 

INDEX. 


491 


Fistula,  recto-vaginal 

—  uterine 

—  vesico-vaginal 
Flatulence 
Fluke  . 
Flux,  nasal 
Fly,  tsetze 
Foetal  membranes,  diseases 

—  removal  of  . 

—  retention  of 
Foetid  pus 
Foetus  dead 

—  detection  of 
Fog  sickness 
Fomentations   . 
Foot 

—  and  mouth  disease 
Foreign  bodies  in  reticul 

—  —  rumen    . 
"Foul"    . 

*'  Founder  " 
Fractures 

—  greenstick   . 

—  of  cranium  . 

—  of  horns 

—  of  metacarpals     . 

—  of  OS  innominatum 

—  of  ribs 

—  partial 
Fragilitas  ossium 
Free  martins     . 
Friction  sound 
Fumigation 
Functional  disorders 

—  disease  of  heart   . 

—  of  skin 

Fungus  hsematodes  . 
Furor  uterinus 
Furunculus 

Gall  bladder     . 
Gangrene 

—  of  lungs 
Gangrenous  stomatitis 
«  Garget " 
Gasterocele 

Gastro  enteritis 
General  symptoms    . 
Generative  system,  female 

male 

Genital  aphtha 

Glanders 

«  Glanders  '*     . 

Glands,  salivary 

—  vascular 
Gleet,  nasal 
Gloss-anthrax  . 
Glossitis  . 


of 


PAGE 

294,  475 

.  468 

.  475 

.  67 

.  98 

.  310 

.  361 
460 

.  445 

.  445 

.  29 

.  465 

.  441 

.  254 

.  85 

.  363 

.  141 

I  .  263 

.  263 

.  364 

.  367 

37,  402 

.  404 

.  404 

.  403 

.  403 

.  404 

.  404 

.  402 

.  400 

.  440 

.  306 

.  322 

.  37 

209,  264 

.  355 

.  370 

•  465 

.  352 

.  299 

.  32 

.  170 

.  484 

178,  477 

.  276 

.  269 

.  62 

.  436 

.  288 

.  160 

.  175 

'.  179 

.  230 

.  225 

.  312 

.  169 

.  232 


PAGE 

Gmelin's  test    .        ,        .        .  101 

Gonorrhoea       ....  435 

"  Grain-sick "  .         .         .         .  260 

Granulations  ....  30 
"Grapes"         .         .         .         .138 

Greenstick  fracture           .         .  404 

Gregariousness          ...  58 

Groove,  oesophageal .        .         .  298 

Grooved  needle          ...  14 

Growths,  warty         .         .         .  370 

Gunshot  wounds       .         .         .  412 

Gustation  ....  375 
"Gut  tie"        .         .        .        .281 

Haematomata  217,  413,  424,  476 

Haemo-albuminuria  .         :         .  106 

Haemoptysis  ....  322 
Haemorrhage    .         .         .36, 414 

—  capillary      ....  222 

—  from  the  liver      .         .         .  297 

—  from  vulva  ....  446 

—  umbilical  ....  483 
Haemorrhagic  infarction  .  .  37 
Haemorrhoids  ....  286 
Hair  balls         ....  268 

—  in  liquor  amnii  .  .  .  461 
Hairy  tumours,  congenital        .  375 

Hare-lip 457 

"Hawks"        .         .         .         .169 

Healthy  ulcer  ....  31 

Heart 207 

—  diseases  of  .         .         .         .  209 

—  misplacement  of  .         .         .  219 

—  pouched       ....  211 

—  rupture  of  .  .  .  .  218 
Heat        .         .        .         .57,439 

—  of  inflammation  ...  24 
Heel,  ulceration  of  .  .  .  368 
Hemiplegia  ....  387 
Hepatic  hernia  .  .  .299 
Hepatirrhoea  ....  297 
Hepatitis  ....  295 
Hereditary  influence  .  .  58 
Hermaphrodites  .  .  .  457 
Hernia 278 

—  diaphragmatic      .         .         .  280 

—  hepatic         ....  299 

—  inguinal       ....  280 

—  mesenteric  ....  280 

—  of  rumen     ....  264 

—  pelvic 281 

—  phrenic        ....  280 

—  scrotal         ....  280 

—  uteri 475 

—  ventral        ....  279 

Herpes 350 

Hide  bound      ....  348 

History  of  cases       ...  5 


•*x)£i 

PAGE 

Ei^. 

PAGE 

Honeycomb  ringwor 

m      .         .362 

Inflammation  of  the  brain       .     375 

Hoof,  loss  of    . 

.    369 

—  of  the  spleen 

.     225 

Horns,  fractures  of  . 

.    405 

Inflammatory  fever  . 

.    170 

—  overgrowth  of     . 

.    368 

—  ulcer  .... 

.       31 

Hosts 

.    201 

Infusoria 

.     200 

Hoven  <    . 

.    254 

Inguinal  hernia 

.    280 

Hydatids . 

.     424 

Inhalations 

.      76 

Hydramnios     . 

.    460 

Injection,  hypodermic 

.      77 

Hydrocele 

.    433 

—  intravenous 

.      76 

Hydrocephalus 

.    379 

—  subcutaneous 

.      77 

—  congenitalis 

.     456 

Inoculation 

47,  113 

Hydrophobia    . 

.     181 

—  for  anthrax 

.    166 

Hydrops  articulorun 

1        .        .408 

—  for  cattle  plague  . 

•     152 

—  pericardii    . 

.     217 

—  for  pleuro  pneumonia  . 

.    139 

—  uteri   . 

.    465 

Inspissated  pus 

.       29 

Hydrothorax    . 

.     328 

Interdigital  fibromata 

.     368 

Hymen,  impervious . 

.     463 

Interlobular  emphysema 

.     319 

Hyperemia      . 

.      35 

Interstitial  pnenmonia 

.     325 

Hypertrophy    , 

.       21 

Intestines 

.    270 

>-  of  blood       . 

.      91 

—  malformations  of 

.     294 

—  of  heart 

.    210 

—  parasites  in 

.    294 

—  of  skin 

.     353 

—  tumours  of  . 

.     294 

—  of  spleen     , 

.     225 

—  ruptures  of . 

.     293 

Hypergalactia  . 

.     482 

Intestinal  apoplexy  . 

.     293 

Hysterocele 

.     475 

—  casts   . 

.     292 

Hysterotomy,  vagin 

al       .        .     462 

Intussusception 

.     274 

Invagination    . 

.     274 

Ichorous  pus    . 

.      29 

Inversion  of  bladder 

343,  475 

Icterus     , 

.     101 

—  of  uterus     . 

.    470 

Idiopathic  haemorrh. 

^ge     .        .      37 

—  of  vagina     . 

.    474 

—  inflammation 

.       34 

Irregularities  of  arteries 

.     221 

—  pericarditis . 

•     216 

Irritant  poisons 

.     196 

—  tetanus 

.     384 

Irritation  venteuse  . 

.    286 

Ileus 

Immediate  contagio 

Impaction  of  abomas 

—  bowels 

—  omasum 

.    275 

n       .        .113 

mm   .         .     267 

.    274 

.    264 

Jaundice 
"Joint  felon" 
Joints,  dropsy  of 
—  inflammation  of  . 

.     101 

.     104 
.     408 
.    407 

—  rumen 

.    260 

Keratitis 

.    371 

Imperforate  vagina 

.    461 

Keratoid  change  of  skin 

.     353 

Impervious  anus 

.    294 

Kidney,  abscess  of  . 

.     338 

—  teats    . 

.    476 

—  encephaloid  of      . 

.     339 

Impetigo . 

.    351 

—  inflammation  of  . 

.     337 

Incised  wounds 

.    412 

Incisors    . 

.    227 

Labour  pains,  false  . 

.     441 

Incontinency  of  urii 

le      .        .    341 

Laburnum 

.     195 

Indigestion 

.    268 

Lacerated  wounds    . 

.     412 

Induration  of  mam 

mary  gland    479 

Lacerations  of  the  eyelids 

.     370 

—  of  thyroid   . 

.     226 

—  of  the  uterus 

.     468 

—  of  tonpjue    . 

.    234 

Lactorrhoea      . 

.     481 

Inertia  of  uterine  w 

alls    .         .     464 

Laminitis 

.     367 

Infarction,  hsemorrl 

lagic  .         .       37 

Lands,  scouring 

.     288 

Infection 

.         .         .     113 

Laparotomy     . 

.    275 

Infectious  aphtha 

.     160 

Laryngitis 

.    312 

Infiltration 

.       20 

Laryngotomy   . 

.    314 

Inflamed  ulcer 

.       32 

Larynx,  fractures  of 

.     315 

Inflammation   , 

.        .        .      23 

—  tumours  of  . 

.    315 

—  of  the  blood 

.      95 

"Lashing''      . 

.    429 

INDEX, 


493 


PAGE 

PAGE 

Latent  period  . 

.    117 

"Mawbound"  .        , 

.     260 

Laudable  pus   . 

.       29 

Meat,  scrofulous 

.     129 

Lead 

.195 

Mechanical  congestion 

.       35 

Legislative  measures 

.      47 

Meconium,  accumulations 

of     .     483 

Leucaemia 

.      99 

Mediate  contagion   . 

.     113 

Leucocythaemia 

.      99 

Medullary  sarcoma   . 

.     420 

Leucorrhoea 

.    475 

Megalomelians 

.        .     457 

Lice 

.     360 

Megrims 

.     378 

Ligaraentum  teres,  spr 

ainof    .     406 

Melanosis 

.     421 

Ligature  for  castration 

.     430 

Meningitis,  tubercular 

.     124 

Lightning  shock 

.      98 

Menstruation   . 

.     439 

Lipomata 

.     423 

Mensuration     . 

.     309 

Lipomatous  paralysis 

.     388 

Mercury  . 

.      49 

Lips         .         .        . 

.    227 

Mesenteric  hernia 

.     280 

Listerism 

.    417 

Metacarpal,  fracture  of  th 

e        .     483 

Lithecstasy 

.     345 

Metastasis 

.       34 

Lithotomy 

.     346 

Meteorisation  . 

.     254 

Lithotrity 

.     345 

Metro-peritonitis 

.     466 

Liver,  congestion  of . 

.    297 

Miescher's  bodies     . 

.     407 

—  inflammation  of  . 

.     295 

Miliary  tubercle 

.    127 

—  ruptures  of 

.     297 

Milk 

.     481 

—  softening  of 

.     298 

—  changes  of  quality 

.     482 

"  Locked  jaw   . 

.    384 

—  fever   .         .         . 

.     390 

Loo. 

.     364 

—  pathological 

.      29 

Loss  of  a  hoof  . 

.     367 

Misplacement  of  the  heart 

.     219 

Lousiness 

.    360 

Molars 

.     228 

Low 

.    367 

Monstrosities    . 

.     456 

Lumbago 

.     104 

Monstrous  condition  of  fo 

3t      .     368 

Lung  disease    . 

.     130 

«  Moor-ill" 

.     290 

—  induration  of 

.     325 

Morbid  anatomy 

.       17 

—  wound  of     . 

.     327 

Mortification     . 

32,  52 

Lusus  naturae  . 

.     458 

Mucous  membranes 

.      66 

Luxations 

.     409 

—  rale      . 

.     305 

Lymph  adhesions     . 

.     225 

Muffle       .         .         .         . 

.     310 

—  coagulable  . 

.       25 

"  Muir-iU" 

.     106 

—  vaccine 

.    157 

"  Mulling^'        . 

.     428 

Lymphatic  system    . 

.    224 

Murrain    , 

.     141 

Lymphoma 

.    225,  424 

Muscles  of  mastication      . 

.     229 

Lymphy    deposit    in 

aqueous 

—  parasites  in 

.     407 

chamber    . 

.    373 

Myelitis  . 

.    384 

Myo-carditis     . 

.    210 

Malformations 

.    219 

—  of  intestines 

.    294 

Naevus      .         .         .         . 

.     353 

—  of  palate 

.       .    :257 

Narcosis  .         .         .        , 

.     383 

—  of  uterus     . 

.       .    474 

Narcotic  poisons 

.     191 

Malignant  catarrh     . 

.    179 

Nasal  polypus  . 

.     311 

—  sore  throat 

.    169 

—  gleet   .         .         .         . 

.     312 

—  tumours 

.    419 

Nausea     .         .         .         . 

.       67 

Mammary  gland 

.        .478 

Nebula     .         .         .         . 

.     372 

Mammitis 

.    477 

Neck  of  bladder,  spasm  of 

.    348 

—  from  eczema 

.    143 

—  of  womb,  torsion  of 

.     463 

—  septic  . 

.    174 

Necrsemia 

76,98 

Mange 

.     357 

Necrosis  .         .         .         . 

33,  398 

Mania  puerperalis     . 

.    396 

Nephritis 

.     337 

Manipulations 

.     303 

Nerve,  phrenic,  division  o 

f        .     396 

Manual  exploration  . 

.      13 

—  sympathetic 

.    396 

Manyplies 

.    249 

Nerves      . 

.    396 

"Martins"       . 

.    440 

Nervous  system 

.    376 

494 


INDEX. 


Nettle-rash 
Neurosis  . 
Neurotomy 

Non-secretion  of  urine 
Nostrils,  bleeding  from 
Number  at  a  birth   . 
Nursing    . 

(Edema    . 

—  umbilical     . 
(Esophageal  groove  . 
ffisophagitis     . 
(Esophagotomy 
(Esophagus       .         . 

—  dilatation  of 


—  fibrous  degeneration  of 

—  rupture  of   . 

—  stricture  of . 
(Estral  products,  profuse 

—  retained 

—  suppressed .  .  . 
(Estriasis 

(Estrum  .... 
Omasitis  .... 
Omasum  .         .         . 

—  atrophy  of   . 
Omphalitis 
Opacity  of  the  cornea 
Open  synovial  sheaths 
Operations 
Ophthalmia,  periodic 

—  simple 

—  specific 
Opisthotonos    . 
Opium      .... 
Orchithlasis 

Orchitis    .... 
Organic  disease  of  the  heart 
Orthopncea       .         . 
Osseophytes 
Osseous  tumours 
Osteoporosis     . 
Osteosarcoma  . 
Ostitis      .... 
Os  uteri,  dilatation  of 

—  imperfect  contraction  of 

—  impervious  . 

Otitis  .... 
Ovaries,  atrophy  of 

—  dropsy  of 
Ovariotomy 
Overgrowth  of  horn 

Palate,  malformations  of . 

Palliatives 

Palpitation  of  the  heart   . 

Palsy        .... 

Pancreas,  diseases  of 

"Pantas'' 


PAGE 

.  351 

.  356 

.  396 

.  334 

.  311 

.  443 
.  46,  50,  72 

25,  310,  355 

.  484 

.  248 

.  238 

.  243 

.  237 

.  238 

.  238 

.  239 

.  238 

.  440 

.  440 

.  440 

.  360 

.  439 

.  266 

.  249 

.  267 

.  483 

.  372 

.  407 

.  43 

.  373 

.  371 

.  373 

.  384 
49,  191 

.  428 

.  432 

.  210 
9 

.  400 

.  424 

.  401 

.  422 


464 
464 
463 
369 
437 
437 
438 
368 

237 
42 
209 
386 
300 
290 


PAGE 

Panzootic 

.       40 

Paps 

.     232 

Paracentesis  abdominis 

•     301 

—  thoracis 

.    330 

Paralysis 

.     3S6 

—  of  retina 

.     374 

—  of  tongue     . 

.     236 

Paraplegia 

.     387 

Parasites 

183,  198 

—  in  brain 

.     382 

—  in  heart 

.     218 

—  in  intestines 

.     294 

—  in  kidney     . 

.     339 

—  in  muscles   . 

.    407 

—  in  nasal  chambers 

.     312 

—  in  oesophagus 

.     239 

—  in  rumen 

.     263 

—  vegetable     . 

.     206 

Parasitic  disorders  of  the 

skin .     356 

Parasitism,  partial    . 

.     203 

Parasitismus    . 

.     198 

Parotiditis 

.     231 

Partial  fracture 

.     404 

Parturient  apoplexy 

.     390 

—  fever    . 

.     173,396 

—  septicaemia  . 

.     173 

Parturition 

.     445 

—  difficult 

.    461 

Passive  congestion    . 

.      35 

—  haemorrhage 

.       37 

Patella,  dislocation  of 

.    410 

Pathognomonic 

5 

Pathological  milk     . 

.       29 

Pathology,  intimate 

.      17 

•'  Paunching  "  . 

.     261 

Pelvic  hernia    . 

.    211 

—  symphysis,  relaxation  ( 

)f       .     400 

Pemphigus 

.     352 

Percussion 

.     308 

Perforation  of  intestine    . 

.     293 

Pericardial  dropsy     . 

.    217 

—  rupture 

.     217 

Pericarditis 

.    213 

Period,  latent  . 

.    117 

Periosteotomy  . 

.     399 

Periostitis 

.     399 

Peripneumonia 

.     130 

Peritonitis 

.     300 

—  puerperal     . 

.     467 

Persistent  hymen      . 

.     463 

Pervious  urachus 

.     344 

Petechise  . 

.       37 

Pettenkofer's  test      . 

.     101 

Phagedaemic  ulcer     . 

.       32 

Pharyngeal  polypus 

.     237 

Pharyngotomy 

.     315 

Pharynx  . 

237 

Phlebitis  . 

,    222 

INDEX. 


495 


PAGE 

PAGE 

Phlebotomy 

.       86 

Prolapsus  recti          .        , 

.    283 

Phlegmon 

.       23 

—  uteri    .... 

.     469 

Phrenic  hernia 

.     280 

—  vesical 

.     343 

Phrenitis 

.    375 

Prolonged  utero-gestation 

.     443 

« Phrensy"        . 

.     376 

Prophylaxis 

.       46 

Phthiriasis 

.    360 

Pruritus  .... 

.     356 

Phthisis  pnlmonalis 

.     121 

Psoriasis  .... 

.     350 

Phymosis 

,         , 

.    483 

Ptosis       .... 

.     370 

Piles 

,         , 

.    286 

Ptyalism  .... 

65,  231 

Pityriasis 

. 

.     353 

Puerperal  apoplexy  . 

.     390 

Placenta  prsevia 

. 

.     446 

—  mania .... 

.     396 

Plenalvia 

,         , 

.    260 

—  peritonitis   . 

.    487 

Plethora  . 

, 

.       91 

Pulmonary  apoplexy 

.     323 

Pleurisy   . 

. 

.     328 

—  congestion  . 

.     322 

Pleuritis  . 

,         , 

.     328 

Pulse        .... 

6,62 

Pleuro 

. 

.     131 

—  venous 

.       63 

Pleuro-pneumonia 

contagiosa 

.     131 

Puncture  of  rumen  . 

.     258 

—  exudativa     . 

. 

.     131 

Punctured  wounds    . 

.     412 

—  pathology  of 

. 

.     135 

Purgatives        .         .         , 

.    285 

—  sporadica      . 

. 

.     331 

Purpura  haemorrhagica     , 

.     110 

—  zymotica 

, 

,    131 

Purulent  infiltration 

.       27 

Pleurosthotonos 

, 

.     384 

Pus           .... 

26,29 

Pneumonia 

,         , 

.     324 

Puschima          .         .         . 

.     147 

Pneumonitis     . 

,         , 

.     324 

Pustular  dermatitis 

.     351 

Pneumothorax 

. 

.     331 

Pyaemia    .... 

.     173 

Poisoned  wounds 

.     412 

Pylorus,  stricture  of 

.    268 

Poisoning,  carbonic  anhydride 

.     100 

Pyrexia    .... 

.      95 

Poisons     . 
Polymelians 

.     185 

.     458 

"  Quarter-evir* 

.    170 

Polypus,  cardiac 

.     217 

Rabies      .... 

.    181 

—  nasal    . 

.    311 

Rachitis  .... 

.    401 

—  pharyngeal . 

.     237 

Rainey's  bodies 

.    407 

Polysarca 

.     456 

Raie          .... 

.     305 

Porcellaneous  deposit 

.     105 

Ramollissement 

.    298 

Post-mortem  examination 

.       38 

Record  of  cases 

6 

"  Pouched  heart" 

.     211 

Recto-vaginal  fistula 

.    475 

Poultices  . 

.       85 

Rectum,  distension  of 

.     294 

Prseputial  calculus 

.     347 

—  rupture  of  . 

.     293 

Predisposition  . 

2 

Relaxation  of  pelvic  symphysis      409 

Pregnancy 

.       59 

—  of  teats 

.    481 

—  signs  of 

.     441 

Remittent  fevers 

.     182 

Preliminary  treatment 

.       44 

Renal  calculus 

.    338 

Premature  birth 

. 

.     443 

Repair      .... 

.     413 

Premonitory  symptoms     . 

4 

Resolution 

.       34 

Presentation,  false 

.     448 

Respirations     .         .         . 

.8,  64 

—  true     . 

.    447 

Respiratory  organs  . 

.     302 

Prevention 

.       46 

Rest          .... 

.       48 

Pricks      . 

.     368 

Restraint 

.       70 

Primary  disease 

.       49 

Results  of  wounds    . 

.     418 

Probang  . 

.     242 

Retention  of  foetal  membranes .     445 

—  corkscrew    . 

.     244 

—  of  oestral  products 

.     440 

—  forceps 

.    244 

—  of  urine 

.     340 

—  passing  the . 

.     243 

Reticulum 

.     249 

Proctatresia 

.     294 

Retina,  paralysis  of . 

.     374 

Profusion  of  oestral 

products 

.     440 

Retinitis 

.     373 

Prognosis 

.         , 

14,67 

Rheumatism     . 

.     104 

Progressive  paralysis 

.     388 

Rhonchus 

.     305 

Prolapsus  ani    . 

. 

.    283 

Ribs,  fractures  of    . 

.     404 

496 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

PAGE 

Rictets    . 

.    401 

Serous  abscess  . 

36,  424 

Rinderpest 

.    147 

—  extravasation 

.       26 

Ringworm,  contagious 

.     361,  362 

Serratus  magnus,  rupture 

of     .     406 

—  honeycomb  . 

.     361 

Setons 

.       88 

—  non-contagious    . 

.    35f 

"  Setting  "  a  bone    . 

.     403 

Rot          ... 

.       93 

Sex. 

.       61 

**  Rotten  "  beasts      . 

.     290 

"Shackling"    . 

.      70 

Rumen     . 

.     248 

Shoeing    . 

.    367 

Rumination 

.     252 

Sibilus      . 

.     305 

Ruminotomy    . 

.     261 

Simple  hypertrophy . 

.     210 

Rupture  of  abomasum 

.     269 

—  ulcer   . 

.       31 

—  bladder 

.     348 

Singe 

.     351 

—  diaphragm  . 

.     332 

Sinus 

.       32 

—  heart  . 

.     218 

Skeleton  . 

.    397 

—  intestines 

.     293 

Skin 

.      67 

—  oesophagus  . 

.     239 

—  diseases  of  . 

.     348 

—  pericardium 

.     217 

Skit         .        .  '     . 

.     269 

—  rectum 

.    293 

Slinging  . 

.      71 

—  rumen 

.     262 

"  Slinking  "  a  calf   . 

.     442 

—  serratus  magnus . 

.     406 

Slipping  a  calf 

.     442 

—  suspensory  ligament 

.     406 

Sloughing 

.       33 

—  urethra 

.     345 

Smallpox  in  cattle    . 

.     156 

—  uterus 

.     469 

Solutions  of  continuity     . 

.       37 

—  vagina 

.     475 

Sore  feet .         .         .         , 

.     367 

—  veins  . 

.     223 

—  teats   . 

.     349 

—  vulva 

.    475 

—  throat,  malignant 

.     169 

—  white  fibrous  band 

.    405 

Sounds,  respiratory  . 

.     305 

Spanish  fever  . 

.     168 

Salivary  calculi 

.     232 

Spasm  of  the  bowels 

.     273 

—  glands 

.     230 

—  of  OS  uteri  . 

.    462 

Salutary  inflammation 

.      47 

Spaying  .         .         .         . 

.     438 

Sanguineous  extravasatioi 

1        .       36 

Special  breeding 

.       47 

Sanious  pus 

.       29 

—  stimulant  poisons 

.     190 

Sarcocele . 

.     432 

Specific  diseases 

.     Ill 

—  tubercular  . 

.     432 

—  inflammation 

.       34 

Sarcomata 

.     422 

—  ophthalmia . 

.     373 

Scab,  healing  under  a 

.     414 

—  pus      .         .         .         , 

.       29 

**  Scanterers  " 

.     290 

—  ulcer   .        .         .        . 

.       32 

Scarlatina 

.     110 

"Speed** 

.     170 

Schistomelus    . 

.    457 

Sphacelus 

.       32 

Scirrhous  udder 

.    478 

Spina  ventosa  . 

.     422 

Scirrhus  . 

.    419 

Spinal  cord,  diseases  of    . 

.     384 

—  of  tongue     . 

.    233 

Spleen,  hypertrophy  of     . 

.     225 

Scleroderma      . 

.     354 

Splenic  apoplexy 

.     167 

Scour 

.    269 

—  fever   .         .         .         . 

.     167 

Scouring  lands         .  • 

.     288 

American 

.     168 

Scrofula  . 

.     121 

Spongio-piline  . 

.       86 

Scrofulous  meat 

.     129 

Sporadic  diseases 

.      40 

Scrotal  hernia  . 

.     280 

—  pleuro-pneumonia 

.     331 

Secondary  disease     . 

5 

Sprain      .         .         .         . 

.     405 

Sedative  poisons 

.     193 

—  of  fetlock    . 

.     405 

Sedatives,  local 

.       51 

—  of  ligament  teres 

.     406 

Senile  ulcer      . 

.       32 

Spray  diffuser  . 

.       44 

Separation  of  epiphysis 

.    404 

"Staggers"      . 

.     264 

Septic  mammitis 

.    174 

Staggers  .         .         .        . 

.     378 

Septicaemia 

.     173 

—  stomach 

.     383 

—  parturient    . 

.    173 

"  Stamping  out" 

.     152 

Sequestrum      . 

33,  398 

Staphyloma 

.    372 

INDEX. 


4-97 


PAGE 

PAGE 

Staring  coat      . 

348 

Teeth       . 

227 

Sterility  of  female    . 

440 

Temperature,  surface 

11 

—  male    . 

432 

—  internal 

!         io,  64 

Stertor     . 

10 

Teres,  ligamentum,  sprain 

of    . 

406 

Sthenic  inflammation 

34 

Testicle,  diseases  of 

432 

"  Stiffness  "      . 

400 

Tetanus    . 

384 

Stimulants  for  inflammation     . 

50 

Texas  fever 

168 

Stinge 

, 

351 

Thoracentesis  . 

330 

Stomach-pump 

. 

74 

Thrombus 

221 

Stomachs 

, 

248 

—  of  veins 

223 

Stomatitis  gangrenosa 

484 

Thrush  in  the  mouth 

236 

—  pustulosa     . 

. 

160 

Thymus  body   . 

226 

Strangles 

. 

175 

Thyroid  — 

226 

Strangury- 

, 

342 

"Tic"      . 

328 

Stricture  of  oesophagus     . 

238 

Ticks        . 

360 

—  of  OS  uteri  . 

462 

Tinea  favosa     . 

361 

soft 

463 

—  tonsurans     . 

362 

—  of  pylorus    . 

268 

Tinea       .         .         .         . 

361 

—  of  urethra    . 

347 

Toleration 

186 

Stringhalt 

390 

Tongue    . 

232 

Strumous  pus   . 

29 

—  cancer  of     . 

234 

Strychnia 

190 

—  cramp  of 

235 

Subacute  disease 

40 

—  cysts  of        . 

235 

Succussiou 

309 

—  induration  of 

234 

Suction  trocar  . 

424 

—  paralysis  of 

236 

Superfcetation  . 

443 

—  scirrhus  of   . 

233 

Suppression  of  oestral 

products  . 

440 

—  ulcers  of 

236 

Suppuration 

26,  52 

Tonsils     .         .         . 

236 

Supra-pharyngeal   glands,  sup- 

Torsion in  castration 

430 

puration   of 

, 

125 

—  of  uterine  neck    . 

463 

Surfeit      . 

. 

357 

Trachea    . 

315 

Surgery,  antiseptic  . 

. 

417 

Tracheotomy    . 

513 

Surgical  treatment  . 

. 

42 

Transfusion 

16 

Suspensoi'y  ligament. 

rupture  of 

406 

Transmission  of  tuberculo 

sis     . 

129 

Sutures    . 

. 

416 

Traumatic  haemorrhage 

37 

Swelling  . 

, 

24 

—  inflammation 

34 

Sympathetic  nervous 

system     . 

396 

—  pericarditis 

213 

Symphysis,  pelvic,  relaxation  of 

409 

—  tetanus 

384 

Symptoms 

. 

3 

Treatment 

!         41,  G9 

—  general 

,         , 

62 

—  of  inflammation  . 

47 

—  objective 

, 

65 

—  of  specific  diseases 

118 

—  subjective     . 

, 

65 

Trismus    . 

384 

Syncephali 

. 

457 

—  nascentium  . 

386 

Synovial  membranes, 

inflamma- 

Trochar,  suction 

424 

tion  of  . 

,         , 

408 

Truss,  Delwart's 

473 

—•  sheaths,  open 

. 

407 

—  uterine 

473 

Synovitis . 

. 

408 

Tsetze  fly 

360 

System,  antiseptic     . 

, 

417 

Tubercle  . 

125 

—  in  man 

128 

Tabes,  mesenterica    , 

, 

126 

Tubercular  meningitis      , 

124 

Tapping  the  chest    . 

, 

330 

—  sarcocele 

432 

Tartar  emetic 

,         , 

49 

Tuberculosis     .         .         . 

121 

Taste 

. 

375 

Tuberculous  ulcer     . 

130 

"Tearing  "process 

of  castra- 

Tumours 

418 

tion      . 

430 

—  calcareous   . 

424 

Teats,  absence  of 

,         , 

476 

—  cystic  .         .         .         . 

424 

—  imperforate  state 

of    . 

476 

—  epidermic    . 

423 

—  sore     . 

. 

349 

—  epithelial     . 

423 

498 

INDEX. 

PAGE 

PAGE 

Tumours  in  genital  passages     .     461 

Vaccination,  animal 

.    157 

—  innocent 

.     428 

Vaccine   .         .         .         . 

.    157 

—  intestinal     . 

.     294 

Vaccinia  . 

.     156 

—  laryngeal     . 

.     315 

Vaccinoides 

.     158 

—  malignant    . 

.     419 

Vagina,  imperforate 

.     461 

—  non-malignant     . 

.     423 

Vaginal  amputation 

.     474 

—  of  veins 

.     224 

—  hysterotomy 

.     463 

—  ordinary  simple  . 

.     423 

—  inversion 

.     474 

—  osseous 

.     424 

—  rupture 

.     475 

—  scrofulous    . 

.     124 

Vaginitis  . 

.     475 

—  uterine 

.     474 

Varicella  . 

.     158 

Twins 

.    460 

Varicocele 

.     433 

Twist  of  the  bowels  . 

.     275 

Varicosity 

.     223 

Tympany 

.      67,  254 

Variola     ... 

.     156 

Typhoid  ulcer  . 

.     130 

—  ovina  . 

.     158 

Udder,  dropping  of  . 

.    477 

Vascular  glands 

.     225 

Ulceration 

29,  52 

Vegetable  parasites  . 

.     206 

—  of  the  heel  . 

.     368 

—  of  the  skin  . 

.     360 

Ulcers       . 

.       31 

Vehicles   . 

.       85 

—  of  the  tongue 

.     236 

Veins,  tumours  of    . 

.     224 

Umbilical  cord,  inflamn] 

lation  of    483 

Venesection 

.      86 

—  haemorrhage 

.483 

Venous  pulse    . 

63 

—  hernia 

.27 

Ventral  hernia 

.     279 

Umbilicus,  oedema  of 

.     484 

Vertigo     . 

.    264 

Urachus,  pervious     . 

.     344 

Vesical  calculus 

.     344 

Uraemia    . 

.      103, 335 

Vesico-vaginal  fistula 

.     476 

Uretal  calculus 

.     339 

Vesicular  emphysema 

.     319 

Ureter,  dilatation  of 

.     339 

—  epizootic 

.     141 

Urethra,  calculus  of 

.     347,434 

—  sound  . 

.     306 

—  dilatation  of 

.     345 

Vicarious  activity     . 

.       49 

—  rupture  of  . 

.     315 

Volvulus 

.     275 

—  stricture  of           . 

.     347 

Vomition 

.       67, 246 

Urethritis 

.     436 

Vulval  rupture 

.     475 

Urinary  passages 

.     339 

Warbles  . 

.     360 

Urination,  profuse    . 

.     334 

Warts       . 

.     354 

Urine 

67,  334 

Warty  growths 

.     370 

—  blood  in       . 

.     834 

Water      . 

.       61 

—  disorders  of 

.     334 

—  boiling 

.       85 

—  incontinence  of    . 

.     341 

"Water  bladder"     . 

.    445 

—  non-secretion  of  . 

.     335 

Weak  ulcers     . 

.       32 

—  retention  of 

.     340 

"  Wens'' 

.     124 

Urticaria  . 

.     110,  351 

"  Whites  " 

.     479 

Uterine  dropsy 

.     465 

"White  skit". 

.     265 

—  fistula 

.     468 

Wind  sucking . 

.     328 

—  furor   . 

.    465 

Womb,  dropsy  of     . 

.     465 

—  inversion 

.    470 

—  inflammation  of  . 

.     466 

—  malformation 

.     474 

—  torsion  of  neck     . 

.    463 

—  prolapsus     . 

.     469 

"Woodevil"    . 

.    290 

—  rupture 

.    469 

Worm  in  the  eye 

.    373 

—  tumours 

.    474 

Wounds  .         .         ,        , 

.    412 

Utero-gestation 

.     441 

—  of  arteries    . 

.    221 

—  prolonged    . 

.     443 

—  of  lungs 

.     327 

Uterus,  amputation  of 

.     473 

Yew,  effects  of 

.     194 

—  inflammation  of  . 

.     466 

Yeoon  pleuro-pneumonic  ] 

esions    135 

—  laceration  of 

.    468 

Young  animals,  diseases  ol 

f  very     483 

Vaccination 

.      47,  152 

Zymotic  pleuro-pneumoni 

X        .     133 

PfilNTED  BY   J.    E.    ADLAED,   BAKTHOLOMEW   CLOSE. 


UN 


IVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA 


LIBRARY 


Due  t«SS«^s  «n«-  date. 


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